The Best Sheepherder. El estereotipo racial de los inmigrantes vascos en el Oeste norteamericano entre finales del siglo XIX y principios del XX.
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Publicado
19-02-2018
Iker Saitua
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8367-7070
Resumen
El presente artículo estudia la imagen de los inmigrantes vascos en el Oeste norteamericano entre finales del siglo XIX y principios del XX, y la influencia que esa imagen tuvo en la integración socioeconómica de este colectivo, dedicado fundamentalmente al pastoreo de ovejas, prestando especial atención al Estado de Nevada. Su objetivo principal es mostrar cómo dicha imagen fue racializada, cómo la etiqueta étnica de vasco fue equiparada a la categoría racial «blanca» en los Estados Unidos, especialmente tras la aprobación de la ley de inmigración de 1924, y cómo esta percepción benefició a los inmigrantes vascos, facilitando su integración. Para ello examina los estudios historiográficos, sociológicos y antropológicos sobre los inmigrantes vascos en el Oeste realizados a finales del siglo XIX y principios del siglo XX por intelectuales estadounidenses, y muestra cómo, influidos por el análisis turneriano y la ideología racialista de la época, elaboraron un estereotipo racial vasco, expresado en la imagen del «buen pastor», que terminó reflejándose en la prensa escrita estadounidense y divulgándose a través de ella.
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Keywords
Inmigración vasca a Estados Unidos, estereotipo vasco, imaginario racial blanco, raza y etnicidad, Oeste norteamericano, mano de obra agrícola
References
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AUSTIN, Mary, The Flock, Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, 1906.
AZCONA MAULEON, Jesús, "La delimitación antropológica y etnológica de lo vasco y de los vascos", Cuadernos de etnología y etnografía de Navarra, 14, 40, 1982, pp. 753-802.
AZCONA PASTOR, José Manuel. Possible Paradises: Basque Emigration to Latin America, University of Nevada Press, Reno, 2004.
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BIETER, John and BIETER, Mark, An Enduring Legacy: The Story of Basques in Idaho, University of Nevada Press, Reno, 2000.
BOGARDUS, Emory S., "A Race-Relations Cycle", American Journal of Sociology, 35, 4, 1930, pp. 612-617.
BOSCH, Aurora, "Estados Unidos en los años treinta: ¿Un socialismo imposible?", Historia Social, 11, 1991, pp. 39-56.
CASTELLI, Joseph R., Basques in the Western United States: A Functional Approach to Determination of Cultural Presence in the Geographic Landscape, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Colorado, 1970.
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DOUGLASS, William A. and BILBAO, Jon, Amerikanuak: Basques in the New World, University of Nevada Press, Reno, 1975.
DOUGLASS, William A., "The Basques of the American West: Preliminary Historical Perspectives", Nevada Historical Society Quarterly, 8, 4, 1970, pp. 12-25.
DRAGO, Harry Sinclair, Following the Grass, The Macaulay Company, New York, 1924.
ECHEVERRIA, Jeronima, Home Away from Home: A History of Basque Boardinghouses, University of Nevada Press, Reno, 1999.
EDLEFSEN, John B., A Sociological Study of the Basques of Southwest Idaho, Ph.D. dissertation, State College of Washington, 1948.
EMBRY, Jessie L. and CANNON, Brian Q. (eds.), Immigrants in the Far West: Historical Identities and Experiences, University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City, 2015.
ETULAIN, Richard W. (ed.)., Basques of the Pacific Northwest, Idaho State University Press, Pocatello, 1991.
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FERGUSON, Niall, Colossus: The Price of America's Empire, Penguin Press, New York, 2004.
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GARATE, Donald T., "Juan de Oñate's Prueba de Caballero, 1625: A Look at His Ancestral Heritage", Colonial Latin American Historical Review, 7, 2, 1998.
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HARKNESS, Ione B., Certain Community Settlements in Oregon, Master's thesis, University of Southern California, 1925.
HATFIELD, Kevin D., "We Were Not Tramp Sheepmen": Resistance and Identity in the Oregon Basque Community, Accustomed Range Rights, and The Taylor Grazing Act, 1890-1955, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Oregon, 2003.
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JOHNSON, Chalmers, The Sorrows of Empire: Militarism, Secrecy, and the End of the Republic, Metropolitan Books, New York, 2004.
JORDAN, Terry G. and KAUPS, Matti E., The American Backwoods Frontier: An Ethnic and Ecological Interpretation, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and London, 1989.
JORDAN, Terry G., "Preadaptation and European Colonization in Rural North America", Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 79, 4, 1989, pp. 489-500.
KELLY, James P., The Settlement of Basques in the American West, Senior paper, Harvard University, 1967.
KESSELL, John L., Spain in the Southwest: A Narrative History of Colonial New Mexico, Arizona, Texas and California, University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 2002.
LANE, Richard H., "Trouble in the Sweet Promised Land: Basques in Early 20th Century Northeastern Nevada", in DOUGLASS, William A., ETULAIN, Rirchard W. y JACOBSEN, William H., Jr. (eds.), Anglo-American contributions to Basque studies: essays in honor of Jon Bilbao, Desert Research Institute on the Social Sciences, Reno, 1977, pp. 33-41.
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LUEBKE, Frederick C. (ed.), European Immigrants in the American West: Community Histories, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, 1998.
LUEBKE, Frederick C., Germans in the New World: Essays in the History of Immigration, University of Illinois Press, Chicago, 1990.
MCCALL, Grant E., Basque-Americans and A Sequential Theory of Migration and Adaptation, Master's thesis, San Francisco State College, 1968.
MCCULLOUGH, Flavia M., The Basques in the Northwest, Master's thesis, University of Portland, 1945.
MUIR, John, The Mountains of California, The Century Co., New York, 1894.
NEWTON, Milton, "Cultural Preadaptation and the Upland South", Geoscience and Man, 5, 1974, pp. 143-154.
NGAI, Mae M., Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 2004.
OMI, Michael and WINANT, Howard, Racial Formation in the United States: From the 1960s to the 1980s, Routledge and Kegan Paul, New York, 1994.
PAGLIARULO, Carol M., Basques in Stockton: A Study of Assimilation, Master's thesis, College of the Pacific, 1948.
PECK, Gunther, Reinventing Free Labor: Padrones and Immigrant Workers in the North American West, 1880-1930, Cambridge University Press, New York, 2000.
PILDAIN SALAZAR, María Pilar, Ir a América. La emigración vasca a América (Guipúzcoa 1840-1870), Caja de Ahorros Municipal de San Sebastián, San Sebastián, 1984.
POWERS, Stephen, The American Merino: For Wool and for Mutton, Orange Judd Company, New York, 1907.
RIPLEY, William Z., The Races of Europe: A Sociological Study, D. Appleton and company, New York, 1899.
ROEDIGER, David R., The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class, Verso, London and New York, 1991.
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ROWLEY, William D., "Privilege vs. Right: Livestock Grazing in U.S. Government Forests", in Harold K. Steen (ed.), History of Sustained-Yield Forestry: A Symposium, Forest History Society, Durham, 1984, pp. 61-67.
ROWLEY, William D., U.S. Forest Service Grazing and Rangelands: A History, Texas A&M University Press, College Station, 1985.
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RUIZ, Allura N., The Basques-Sheepmen of the West, Master's thesis, University of Nevada, 1964.
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SAITUA, Iker, Sagebrush Laborers: Basque Immigrants in Nevada's Sheep Industry, International Dimensions, and the Making of an Agricultural Workforce, 1880-1954, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Nevada-Reno, 2016b.
SATHER, Clifford A., Marriage Patterns Among the Basques of Shoshone, Idaho, Master's thesis, Reed College, 1961.
SAXTON, Alexander, The Indispensable Enemy: Labor and the Anti-Chinese Movement in California, University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1971.
SAXTON, Alexander, The Rise and Fall of the White Republic: Class Politics and Mass Culture in Nineteenth-Century America, Verso, London and New York, 1990.
SHEPPERSON, Wilbur S., Restless Strangers: Nevada's Immigrants and their Interpreters, University of Nevada Press, Reno, 1970.
SILEN, Sol, La Historia de los Vascongados en el Oeste de los Estados Unidos, Las Novedades, Inc., New York, 1917.
SIMMONS, Marc, The Last Conquistador: Juan de Oñate and the Settling of the Far Southwest, University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 1991.
SNYDER, James B., "Putting 'Hoofed Locusts' Out to Pasture", Nevada Historical Society Quarterly, 46, 3, 2003, pp. 139-171.
TOWNLEY, John M., Turn This Water Into Gold: The Story of the Newlands Project, Nevada Historical Society, Reno, 1998.
TURNER, Frederick Jackson, "The Winning of the West", The Dial, 10, 1889, pp. 71-73.
TURNER, Frederick Jackson, The Frontier in American History, Henry Holt and Company, New York, 1948.
WEBER, David J., The Spanish Frontier in North America, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1992.
WHITE, Richard, "It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A History of the American West, University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 1991.
WILCOX, Mary S., A Historical Study of the Basque Race with Special Reference to the United States, Master's thesis, University of Utah, 1939.
YOUNG, James A. and SPARKS, B. Abbott, Cattle in the Cold Desert, Utah State University Press, Logan, 1985.
ALMAGUER, Tomás, Racial Fault Lines: The Historical Origins of White Supremacy in California, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1994.
ANGULO MORALES, Alberto and ÁLVAREZ GILA, Óscar (coords.), Las migraciones vascas en perspectiva histórica (siglos XVI-XX), Universidad del País Vasco, Bilbao, 2002.
AUSTIN, Mary, The Flock, Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, 1906.
AZCONA MAULEON, Jesús, "La delimitación antropológica y etnológica de lo vasco y de los vascos", Cuadernos de etnología y etnografía de Navarra, 14, 40, 1982, pp. 753-802.
AZCONA PASTOR, José Manuel. Possible Paradises: Basque Emigration to Latin America, University of Nevada Press, Reno, 2004.
BARRERA, Mario, Race and Class in the Southwest: A Theory of Racial Inequality, University of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame, 1979.
BIETER, John and BIETER, Mark, An Enduring Legacy: The Story of Basques in Idaho, University of Nevada Press, Reno, 2000.
BOGARDUS, Emory S., "A Race-Relations Cycle", American Journal of Sociology, 35, 4, 1930, pp. 612-617.
BOSCH, Aurora, "Estados Unidos en los años treinta: ¿Un socialismo imposible?", Historia Social, 11, 1991, pp. 39-56.
CASTELLI, Joseph R., Basques in the Western United States: A Functional Approach to Determination of Cultural Presence in the Geographic Landscape, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Colorado, 1970.
DAVIS, Eleanor, "The Basques in Malheur County", Commonwealth Review, 9, 2, 1927, pp. 51-55.
DOUGLASS, William A. and BILBAO, Jon, Amerikanuak: Basques in the New World, University of Nevada Press, Reno, 1975.
DOUGLASS, William A., "The Basques of the American West: Preliminary Historical Perspectives", Nevada Historical Society Quarterly, 8, 4, 1970, pp. 12-25.
DRAGO, Harry Sinclair, Following the Grass, The Macaulay Company, New York, 1924.
ECHEVERRIA, Jeronima, Home Away from Home: A History of Basque Boardinghouses, University of Nevada Press, Reno, 1999.
EDLEFSEN, John B., A Sociological Study of the Basques of Southwest Idaho, Ph.D. dissertation, State College of Washington, 1948.
EMBRY, Jessie L. and CANNON, Brian Q. (eds.), Immigrants in the Far West: Historical Identities and Experiences, University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City, 2015.
ETULAIN, Richard W. (ed.)., Basques of the Pacific Northwest, Idaho State University Press, Pocatello, 1991.
ETULAIN, Richard W., "The Basques in Western American Literature", in DOUGLASS, William A., ETULAIN, Rirchard W. y JACOBSEN, William H., Jr. (eds.), Anglo-American contributions to Basque studies: essays in honor of Jon Bilbao, Desert Research Institute on the Social Sciences, Reno, 1977, pp. 7-18.
FERGUSON, Niall, Colossus: The Price of America's Empire, Penguin Press, New York, 2004.
FIELDS, Barbara J., "Ideology and Race in American History" in J. Morgan Kousser and James M. McPherson (eds.), Region, Race, and Reconstruction: Essays in Honor of C. Vann Woodward, Oxford University Press, New York, 1982, pp. 143-177.
FITZGERALD, Keith, The Face of the Nation: Immigration, the State, and the National Identity, Stanford University Press, Stanford, 1996.
FOSS, Phillip O., Politics and Grass: The Administration of Grazing on the Public Domain, University of Washington Press, Seattle, 1960.
GAISER, Joseph H., The Basques of the Jordan Valley Area: A Study in Social Processes and Social Change, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Southern California, 1944.
GARATE, Donald T., "Basque Names, Nobility, and Ethnicity on the Spanish Frontier", Colonial Latin American Historical Review, 2, 1, 1993, pp. 77-104.
GARATE, Donald T., "Juan de Oñate's Prueba de Caballero, 1625: A Look at His Ancestral Heritage", Colonial Latin American Historical Review, 7, 2, 1998.
GARATE, Donald T., Juan Bautista de Anza: Basque Explorer in the New World, 1693-1740, University of Nevada Press, Reno, 2005.
GÓMEZ-IBÁÑEZ, Daniel Alexander, The Rise and Decline of Transhumance in the United States, Master's thesis, University of Wisconsin, 1967.
GOODMAN, David, Spanish Naval Power, 1589-1665. Reconstruction and Defeat, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1997.
HARKNESS, Ione B., "Basque Settlement in Oregon", Oregon Historical Quarterly, 34, 3, 1933, pp. 273-275.
HARKNESS, Ione B., Certain Community Settlements in Oregon, Master's thesis, University of Southern California, 1925.
HATFIELD, Kevin D., "We Were Not Tramp Sheepmen": Resistance and Identity in the Oregon Basque Community, Accustomed Range Rights, and The Taylor Grazing Act, 1890-1955, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Oregon, 2003.
IGNATIEV, Noel, How the Irish Became White, Routledge, New York and London, 1995.
JACOBSON, Matthew F., Whiteness of a Different Color: European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1998.
JOHNSON, Chalmers, The Sorrows of Empire: Militarism, Secrecy, and the End of the Republic, Metropolitan Books, New York, 2004.
JORDAN, Terry G. and KAUPS, Matti E., The American Backwoods Frontier: An Ethnic and Ecological Interpretation, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and London, 1989.
JORDAN, Terry G., "Preadaptation and European Colonization in Rural North America", Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 79, 4, 1989, pp. 489-500.
KELLY, James P., The Settlement of Basques in the American West, Senior paper, Harvard University, 1967.
KESSELL, John L., Spain in the Southwest: A Narrative History of Colonial New Mexico, Arizona, Texas and California, University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 2002.
LANE, Richard H., "Trouble in the Sweet Promised Land: Basques in Early 20th Century Northeastern Nevada", in DOUGLASS, William A., ETULAIN, Rirchard W. y JACOBSEN, William H., Jr. (eds.), Anglo-American contributions to Basque studies: essays in honor of Jon Bilbao, Desert Research Institute on the Social Sciences, Reno, 1977, pp. 33-41.
LHANDE, Pierre, L'Emigration Basque: Histoire, Economie, Psychologie, Nouvelle Librairie Nationale, Paris, 1910.
LUEBKE, Frederick C. (ed.), European Immigrants in the American West: Community Histories, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, 1998.
LUEBKE, Frederick C., Germans in the New World: Essays in the History of Immigration, University of Illinois Press, Chicago, 1990.
MCCALL, Grant E., Basque-Americans and A Sequential Theory of Migration and Adaptation, Master's thesis, San Francisco State College, 1968.
MCCULLOUGH, Flavia M., The Basques in the Northwest, Master's thesis, University of Portland, 1945.
MUIR, John, The Mountains of California, The Century Co., New York, 1894.
NEWTON, Milton, "Cultural Preadaptation and the Upland South", Geoscience and Man, 5, 1974, pp. 143-154.
NGAI, Mae M., Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 2004.
OMI, Michael and WINANT, Howard, Racial Formation in the United States: From the 1960s to the 1980s, Routledge and Kegan Paul, New York, 1994.
PAGLIARULO, Carol M., Basques in Stockton: A Study of Assimilation, Master's thesis, College of the Pacific, 1948.
PECK, Gunther, Reinventing Free Labor: Padrones and Immigrant Workers in the North American West, 1880-1930, Cambridge University Press, New York, 2000.
PILDAIN SALAZAR, María Pilar, Ir a América. La emigración vasca a América (Guipúzcoa 1840-1870), Caja de Ahorros Municipal de San Sebastián, San Sebastián, 1984.
POWERS, Stephen, The American Merino: For Wool and for Mutton, Orange Judd Company, New York, 1907.
RIPLEY, William Z., The Races of Europe: A Sociological Study, D. Appleton and company, New York, 1899.
ROEDIGER, David R., The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class, Verso, London and New York, 1991.
ROOSEVELT, Theodore, The Winning of the West, vol. 1, G. P. Putman's Sons, New York, 1889.
ROWLEY, William D., "Privilege vs. Right: Livestock Grazing in U.S. Government Forests", in Harold K. Steen (ed.), History of Sustained-Yield Forestry: A Symposium, Forest History Society, Durham, 1984, pp. 61-67.
ROWLEY, William D., U.S. Forest Service Grazing and Rangelands: A History, Texas A&M University Press, College Station, 1985.
RUA, Concepción de la, "Los estudios de Paleoantropología en el País Vasco", Munibe, 42, 1990, pp. 199-219.
RUBIO POBES, Coro, "Centinelas de la Patria. Regionalismo vasco y nacionalización española en el siglo XIX", Historia contemporánea, 53, 2016, pp. 393-425.
RUBIO POBES, Coro, Fueros y constitución: la lucha por el control del poder (País Vasco, 1808-1868), Universidad del País Vasco, Bilbao, 1997.
RUBIO POBES, Coro, La identidad vasca en el siglo XIX: discurso y agentes sociales, Biblioteca Nueva, Madrid, 2003.
RUBIO POBES, Coro, Revolución y tradición: el País Vasco ante la Revolución liberal y la construcción del Estado español, (1808-1868), Siglo XXI, Madrid, 1996.
RUIZ, Allura N., The Basques-Sheepmen of the West, Master's thesis, University of Nevada, 1964.
SAITUA, Iker, "Becoming Herders: Basque Immigration, Labor, and Settlement in Nevada, 1880-1910", Montana: The Magazine of Western History, 66, 4, 2016a, pp. 58-70.
SAITUA, Iker, Sagebrush Laborers: Basque Immigrants in Nevada's Sheep Industry, International Dimensions, and the Making of an Agricultural Workforce, 1880-1954, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Nevada-Reno, 2016b.
SATHER, Clifford A., Marriage Patterns Among the Basques of Shoshone, Idaho, Master's thesis, Reed College, 1961.
SAXTON, Alexander, The Indispensable Enemy: Labor and the Anti-Chinese Movement in California, University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1971.
SAXTON, Alexander, The Rise and Fall of the White Republic: Class Politics and Mass Culture in Nineteenth-Century America, Verso, London and New York, 1990.
SHEPPERSON, Wilbur S., Restless Strangers: Nevada's Immigrants and their Interpreters, University of Nevada Press, Reno, 1970.
SILEN, Sol, La Historia de los Vascongados en el Oeste de los Estados Unidos, Las Novedades, Inc., New York, 1917.
SIMMONS, Marc, The Last Conquistador: Juan de Oñate and the Settling of the Far Southwest, University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 1991.
SNYDER, James B., "Putting 'Hoofed Locusts' Out to Pasture", Nevada Historical Society Quarterly, 46, 3, 2003, pp. 139-171.
TOWNLEY, John M., Turn This Water Into Gold: The Story of the Newlands Project, Nevada Historical Society, Reno, 1998.
TURNER, Frederick Jackson, "The Winning of the West", The Dial, 10, 1889, pp. 71-73.
TURNER, Frederick Jackson, The Frontier in American History, Henry Holt and Company, New York, 1948.
WEBER, David J., The Spanish Frontier in North America, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1992.
WHITE, Richard, "It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A History of the American West, University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 1991.
WILCOX, Mary S., A Historical Study of the Basque Race with Special Reference to the United States, Master's thesis, University of Utah, 1939.
YOUNG, James A. and SPARKS, B. Abbott, Cattle in the Cold Desert, Utah State University Press, Logan, 1985.
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