Nuevos retos en las relaciones franquiciador-franquiciado. Un análisis desde la teoría de la agencia
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Publicado
18-09-2018
Guillermo Navarro Sanfelix
Francisco Puig
Resumen
La Teoría de la Agencia está ampliamente extendida en la literatura sobre el modelo de negocio de la franquicia. Desde la misma se analiza el contenido del contrato que gestiona la relación entre Principal y Agente en actividades y procesos fácilmente estandarizables (restauración, comercio minorista, agencias de viaje, etc.). No obstante, durante los últimos 10 años ha habido un espectacular desarrollo de ese modelo empresarial hacia sectores más intensivos en conocimiento (dentistas, ópticas, fisioterapia, etc.) que cuestiona algunos de los postulados básicos de la teoría, limitando las posibilidades de desarrollo y supervivencia del proyecto.
En este trabajo revisamos el "nuevo problema de agencia" de Agencia que surge cuando un emprendedor franquicia una actividad intensiva en Capital Intelectual. Consideramos que las actividades que se realizan en estos sectores presentan una complejidad tal que hace difícilmente codificable y transmisible todos sus aspectos, por lo que el uso de los Contratos típicos de Agencia puede quedar muy limitado. Por ello, a partir del marco de la Teoría de Recursos y Capacidades planteamos un conjunto de proposiciones que sugieren un contrato dinámico interorganizacional y donde la efectiva transferencia de conocimientos entre las partes se convierte en un aspecto clave. En última instancia las contribuciones del mismo permitirán reducir las tasas se disolución de esos proyectos.
Cómo citar
Navarro Sanfelix, G., & Puig, F. (2018). Nuevos retos en las relaciones franquiciador-franquiciado. Un análisis desde la teoría de la agencia. Cuadernos De Gestión, 18(1), 85–102. https://doi.org/10.5295/cdg.150610gn
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Keywords
Franquicia, teoría de la agencia, emprendimiento, teoría de recursos y capacidades
References
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Altinay, L., Brookes, M., Yeung, R., and Aktas, G., 2014. Franchisees’ perceptions of relationship development in franchise partnerships. Journal of Services Marketing, 28(6), 509-519.
AEF (Asociación Española de Franquicias), 2015. Franquiciadores. Libro Oficial de la Asociación Española de Franquiciadores 2015. Disponible on-line, consultado el 15 de febrero de 2016: http://www.franquiciadores.com/publicaciones.php
Ayling, D., 1988. Franchising in the UK. The Quarterly Review of Marketing, 13(4), 19-24.
Baena, V., 2010. Teorías y líneas de investigación en el sistema de franquicia: una revisión desde los años 60 hasta 2009. Cuadernos de Gestión, 10, 43-66.
Barthélemy, J., 2011. Agency and institutional influences on franchising decisions. Journal of Business Venturing, 26(1), 93-103.
Bates, T., 1995. Analysis of survival rates among franchise and independent small business startups. Journal of Small Business Management, 33(2), 26-36.
Benavides, M. C. R., Rata, B. M., and Sánchez, J. I. L., 2008. Transferencia de conocimiento en la creación y en el funcionamiento de los sistemas de franquicia: un estudio empírico. Economía Industrial, (368), 227-237.
Blut, M., Backhaus, C., Heussler, T., Woisetschläger, D. M., Evanschitzky, H., and Ahlert, D., 2011. What to expect after the honeymoon: testing a lifecycle theory of franchise relationships. Journal of Retailing, 87(3), 306-319.
Castrogiovanni, G. J., Justis, R. T., and Julian, S. D., 1993. Franchise failure rates: an assessment of magnitude and influencing factors. Journal of Small Business Management, 31, 105-105.
Caves, R. E., and Murphy, W. F., 1976. Franchising: Firms, markets, and intangible assets. Southern Economic Journal, 42, 572-586.
Christopher, M., 1996. From brand values to customer value. Journal of Marketing Practice: Applied Marketing Science, 2(1), 55-66
Combs, J. G., Ketchen, D. J., Shook, C. L., and Short, J. C., 2011. Antecedents and consequences of franchising: Past accomplishments and future challenges. Journal of Management, 37(1), 99-126.
Combs, J. G., Ketchen Jr, D. J., and Short, J. C., 2011. Franchising research: Major milestones, new directions, and its future within entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 35(3), 413-425.
Croonen, E. P., and Brand, M., 2013. Antecedents of franchisee responses to franchisor-initiated strategic change. International Small Business Journal, 0(0), 1-23.
Chu, C. N., and Liu, W. M., 2010. General Equilibrium Analysis of Hold-Up Problem and Non-Exclusive Franchise Contract. Pacific Economic Review, 15(5), 674-684.
Cuevas-Rodríguez, G., Gomez-Mejia, L. R., and Wiseman, R. M., 2012. Has agency theory run its course? Making the theory more flexible to inform the management of reward systems. Corporate Governance: An International Review, 20(6), 526-546.
Cumberland, D., and Githens, R., 2012. Tacit knowledge barriers in franchising: practical solutions. Journal of Workplace Learning, 24(1), 48-58
Dada, O. L., and Watson, A., 2012. The effect of entrepreneurial orientation on the franchise relationship. International Small Business Journal. 0 (0) 1–23
Dada, O. L., Watson, A., and Kirby, D. A., 2010. Toward a model of franchisee entrepreneurship. International Small Business Journal. 30(5), 1–25
Dant, R. P., 2008. A futuristic research agenda for the field of franchising. Journal of Small Business Management, 46(1), 91-98.
Desai, P. S., 1997. Advertising fee in business-format franchising. Management Science, 43(10), 1401-1419.
Eisenhardt, K. M., 1989. Agency theory: An assessment and review. Academy of Management Review, 14(1), 57-74.
El Akremi, A., Mignonac, K., and Perrigot, R., 2010. Opportunistic behaviors in franchise chains: The role of cohesion among franchisees. Strategic Management Journal, 32(9), 930-948.
Fama, E. F., and Jensen, M. C., 1983a. Separation of ownership and control. Journal of Law and Economics, 26, 301-325.
Fama, E. F., and Jensen, M. C., 1983b. Agency problems and residual claims. Journal of Law and Economics, 26, 327-349.
Fladmoe-Lindquist, K., 1996. International franchising: capabilities and development. Journal of Business Venturing, 11(5), 419-438.
Gasset, J. R., 1992. La franquicia: una estrategia de expansión. Escuela de administración de empresas de Barcelona.
Gillis, W., and Castrogiovanni, G. J., 2012. The franchising business model: an entrepreneurial growth alternative. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 8(1), 75-98.
Gonzalez-Diaz, M., and Solis-Rodriguez, V., 2012. Why do entrepreneurs use franchising as a financial tool? An agency explanation. Journal of Business Venturing, 27(3), 325-341.
Gorovaia, N., and Windsperger, J., 2013. Determinants of knowledge transfer strategy in franchising: integrating knowledge-based and relational governance perspectives. The Service Industries Journal, 33(12), 1117-1134.
Grace, D., and Weaven, S., 2011. An empirical analysis of franchisee value-in-use, investment risk and relational satisfaction. Journal of Retailing, 87(3), 366-380.
Hossain, T., and Wang, S., 2008. Franchisor’s Cumulative Franchising Experience and Its Impact on Franchising Management Strategies. Journal of Marketing Channels, 15(1), 43-69.
Hua, N., and Dalbor, M. C., 2013. Evidence of franchising on outperformance in the restaurant industry: A long term analysis and perspective. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 25(5), 723-739.
IFA (International Franchising Association), 2016. Franchise Business Economic Outlook for 2016. Disponible on line, consultado el 10 de junio de 2016: http://www.franchise.org/sites/default/files/EconomicOutlookInfographic_January2016.pdf
Jensen, M. C., and Meckling, W. H., 1976. Theory of the firm: Managerial behavior, agency costs and ownership structure. Journal of Financial Economics, 3(4), 305-360.
Juste, M. V. B., Palacios, L. L., and Redondo, Y. P., 2006. Valoración de los recursos intangibles: un análisis empírico para el sector de la franquicia. Información Comercial Española, ICE: Revista de Economía (829), 177-188.
Kaufmann, P. J., 1999. Franchising and the choice of self-employment. Journal of Business Venturing, 14(4), 345-362.
Kaufmann, P. J., and Eroglu, S., 1999. Standardization and adaptation in business format franchising. Journal of Business Venturing, 14(1), 69-85.
Lafontaine, F., 1992. Agency theory and franchising: some empirical results. The RAND Journal of Economics, 23(2), 263-283.
Lafontaine, F., and Bhattacharyya, S., 1995. The role of risk in franchising. Journal of Corporate Finance, 2(1), 39-74.
Letza, S., Kirkbride, J., and Sun, X., 2004. Shareholding versus stakeholding: A critical review of corporate governance. Governance: An International Review, 12(3), 242-262.
Marie Doherty, A., Chen, X., and Alexander, N., 2014. The franchise relationship in China: agency and institutional theory perspectives. European Journal of Marketing, 48(9/10), 1664-1689.
Mellewigt, T., Ehrmann, T., and Decker, C., 2011. How does the franchisor’s choice of different control mechanisms affect franchisees’ and employee-managers’ satisfaction? Journal of Retailing, 87(3), 320-331.
Michael, S. C., 2014. Can franchising be an economic development strategy? An empirical investigation. Small Business Economics, 42(3), 611-620.
Michael, S. C., and Combs, J. G., 2008. Entrepreneurial failure: the case of franchisees*. Journal of Small Business Management, 46(1), 73-90.
Michael, S. C., and Moore, H. J., 1995. Returns to franchising. Journal of Corporate Finance, 2(1), 133-155.
Mumdžiev, N., and Windsperger, J., 2011. The structure of decision rights in franchising networks: a property rights perspective. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 35(3), 449-465.
Norton, S. W., 1988. An empirical look at franchising as an organizational form. Journal of Business, 61(2), 197-218.
Nyadzayo, M. W., Matanda, M. J., and Ewing, M. T., 2015. The impact of franchisor support, brand commitment, brand citizenship behavior, and franchisee experience on franchisee-perceived brand image. Journal of Business Research, 68, 1886-1894.
Okoroafor, H., 2014. The barriers to tacit knowledge sharing in franchise organizations. Knowledge Management Research & Practice, 12(1), 97-102.
Pardo-del-Val, M., Martínez-Fuentes, C., López-Sánchez, J. I., and Minguela-Rata, B., 2014. Franchising: the dilemma between standardisation and flexibility. The Service Industries Journal, 34(9-10), 828-842.
Pena, I., 2002. Intellectual capital and business start-up success. Journal of Intellectual Capital, 3(2), 180-198.
Petty, R., and Guthrie, J., 2000. Intellectual capital literature review: measurement, reporting and management. Journal of Intellectual Capital, 1(2), 155-176.
Ring, P. S., and Van de Ven, A. H., 1994. Developmental processes of cooperative interorganizacional relationships. Academy of Management Review, 19(1), 90-118.
Ross, S. A., 1973. The economic theory of agency: The principal’s problem. The American Economic Review, 63, 134-139.
Rubin, P. H., 1973. Expansion of firms. Journal of Political Economy, 81(4), 936-949.
Rubin, P. H., 1978. The theory of the firm and the structure of the franchise contract. Journal of Law and Economics, 21, 223-233.
Salar, M., and Salar, O., 2014. Determining pros and cons of franchising by using swot analysis. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 122, 515-519.
Seawright, K. W., Smith, I. H., Mitchell, R. K., and McClendon, R., 2013. Exploring Entrepreneurial Cognition in Franchisees: A Knowledge-Structure Approach. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 37(2), 201-227.
Shane, S. A., 1998. Making new franchise systems work. Strategic Management Journal, 19(7), 697-707.
Shane, S., and Venkataraman, S., 2000. The promise of entrepreneurship as a field of research. Academy of Management Review, 25(1), 217-226.
Sigué, S. P., and Chintagunta, P., 2009. Advertising strategies in a franchise system. European Journal of Operational Research, 198(2), 655-665.
Stewart, T., and Ruckdeschel, C., 1998. Intellectual capital: The new wealth of organizations. New York: Currency Doubleday.
Teece, D. J., Pisano, G., and Shuen, A., 1997. Dynamic capabilities and strategic management. Strategic Management Journal, 18(7), 509-533.
Vázquez, L., 2005. Las compensaciones en las relaciones de franquicia. Revista de Economía Aplicada, 13(38), 111-122.
Vázquez, L., 2007. Determinants of contract length in franchise contracts. Economics Letters, 97(2), 145-150.
Venkataraman, S., 1997. The distinctive domain of entrepreneurship research. Advances in Entrepreneurship, Firm Emergence and Growth, 3(1), 119-138.
Watson, A., and Stanworth, J., 2006. Franchising and intellectual capital: A franchisee’s perspective. The International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 2(3), 337-349.
Wernerfelt, B., 1984. A resource-based view of the firm. Strategic Management Journal, 5(2), 171-180.
Wimmer, B. S., and Garen, J. E., 1997. Moral hazard, asset specificity, implicit bonding, and compensation: The case of franchising. Economic Inquiry, 35(3), 544-554.
Windsperger, J., and Dant, R. P., 2006. Contractibility and ownership redirection in franchising: A property rights view. Journal of Retailing, 82(3), 259-272.
Winter, S. G., Szulanski, G., Ringov, D., and Jensen, R. J., 2012. Reproducing knowledge: inaccurate replication and failure in franchise organizations. Organization Science, 23(3), 672-685.
Zander, U., and Kogut, B., 1995. Knowledge and the speed of the transfer and imitation of organizational capabilities: An empirical test. Organization Science, 6(1), 76-92.
Altinay, L., Brookes, M., Yeung, R., and Aktas, G., 2014. Franchisees’ perceptions of relationship development in franchise partnerships. Journal of Services Marketing, 28(6), 509-519.
AEF (Asociación Española de Franquicias), 2015. Franquiciadores. Libro Oficial de la Asociación Española de Franquiciadores 2015. Disponible on-line, consultado el 15 de febrero de 2016: http://www.franquiciadores.com/publicaciones.php
Ayling, D., 1988. Franchising in the UK. The Quarterly Review of Marketing, 13(4), 19-24.
Baena, V., 2010. Teorías y líneas de investigación en el sistema de franquicia: una revisión desde los años 60 hasta 2009. Cuadernos de Gestión, 10, 43-66.
Barthélemy, J., 2011. Agency and institutional influences on franchising decisions. Journal of Business Venturing, 26(1), 93-103.
Bates, T., 1995. Analysis of survival rates among franchise and independent small business startups. Journal of Small Business Management, 33(2), 26-36.
Benavides, M. C. R., Rata, B. M., and Sánchez, J. I. L., 2008. Transferencia de conocimiento en la creación y en el funcionamiento de los sistemas de franquicia: un estudio empírico. Economía Industrial, (368), 227-237.
Blut, M., Backhaus, C., Heussler, T., Woisetschläger, D. M., Evanschitzky, H., and Ahlert, D., 2011. What to expect after the honeymoon: testing a lifecycle theory of franchise relationships. Journal of Retailing, 87(3), 306-319.
Castrogiovanni, G. J., Justis, R. T., and Julian, S. D., 1993. Franchise failure rates: an assessment of magnitude and influencing factors. Journal of Small Business Management, 31, 105-105.
Caves, R. E., and Murphy, W. F., 1976. Franchising: Firms, markets, and intangible assets. Southern Economic Journal, 42, 572-586.
Christopher, M., 1996. From brand values to customer value. Journal of Marketing Practice: Applied Marketing Science, 2(1), 55-66
Combs, J. G., Ketchen, D. J., Shook, C. L., and Short, J. C., 2011. Antecedents and consequences of franchising: Past accomplishments and future challenges. Journal of Management, 37(1), 99-126.
Combs, J. G., Ketchen Jr, D. J., and Short, J. C., 2011. Franchising research: Major milestones, new directions, and its future within entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 35(3), 413-425.
Croonen, E. P., and Brand, M., 2013. Antecedents of franchisee responses to franchisor-initiated strategic change. International Small Business Journal, 0(0), 1-23.
Chu, C. N., and Liu, W. M., 2010. General Equilibrium Analysis of Hold-Up Problem and Non-Exclusive Franchise Contract. Pacific Economic Review, 15(5), 674-684.
Cuevas-Rodríguez, G., Gomez-Mejia, L. R., and Wiseman, R. M., 2012. Has agency theory run its course? Making the theory more flexible to inform the management of reward systems. Corporate Governance: An International Review, 20(6), 526-546.
Cumberland, D., and Githens, R., 2012. Tacit knowledge barriers in franchising: practical solutions. Journal of Workplace Learning, 24(1), 48-58
Dada, O. L., and Watson, A., 2012. The effect of entrepreneurial orientation on the franchise relationship. International Small Business Journal. 0 (0) 1–23
Dada, O. L., Watson, A., and Kirby, D. A., 2010. Toward a model of franchisee entrepreneurship. International Small Business Journal. 30(5), 1–25
Dant, R. P., 2008. A futuristic research agenda for the field of franchising. Journal of Small Business Management, 46(1), 91-98.
Desai, P. S., 1997. Advertising fee in business-format franchising. Management Science, 43(10), 1401-1419.
Eisenhardt, K. M., 1989. Agency theory: An assessment and review. Academy of Management Review, 14(1), 57-74.
El Akremi, A., Mignonac, K., and Perrigot, R., 2010. Opportunistic behaviors in franchise chains: The role of cohesion among franchisees. Strategic Management Journal, 32(9), 930-948.
Fama, E. F., and Jensen, M. C., 1983a. Separation of ownership and control. Journal of Law and Economics, 26, 301-325.
Fama, E. F., and Jensen, M. C., 1983b. Agency problems and residual claims. Journal of Law and Economics, 26, 327-349.
Fladmoe-Lindquist, K., 1996. International franchising: capabilities and development. Journal of Business Venturing, 11(5), 419-438.
Gasset, J. R., 1992. La franquicia: una estrategia de expansión. Escuela de administración de empresas de Barcelona.
Gillis, W., and Castrogiovanni, G. J., 2012. The franchising business model: an entrepreneurial growth alternative. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 8(1), 75-98.
Gonzalez-Diaz, M., and Solis-Rodriguez, V., 2012. Why do entrepreneurs use franchising as a financial tool? An agency explanation. Journal of Business Venturing, 27(3), 325-341.
Gorovaia, N., and Windsperger, J., 2013. Determinants of knowledge transfer strategy in franchising: integrating knowledge-based and relational governance perspectives. The Service Industries Journal, 33(12), 1117-1134.
Grace, D., and Weaven, S., 2011. An empirical analysis of franchisee value-in-use, investment risk and relational satisfaction. Journal of Retailing, 87(3), 366-380.
Hossain, T., and Wang, S., 2008. Franchisor’s Cumulative Franchising Experience and Its Impact on Franchising Management Strategies. Journal of Marketing Channels, 15(1), 43-69.
Hua, N., and Dalbor, M. C., 2013. Evidence of franchising on outperformance in the restaurant industry: A long term analysis and perspective. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 25(5), 723-739.
IFA (International Franchising Association), 2016. Franchise Business Economic Outlook for 2016. Disponible on line, consultado el 10 de junio de 2016: http://www.franchise.org/sites/default/files/EconomicOutlookInfographic_January2016.pdf
Jensen, M. C., and Meckling, W. H., 1976. Theory of the firm: Managerial behavior, agency costs and ownership structure. Journal of Financial Economics, 3(4), 305-360.
Juste, M. V. B., Palacios, L. L., and Redondo, Y. P., 2006. Valoración de los recursos intangibles: un análisis empírico para el sector de la franquicia. Información Comercial Española, ICE: Revista de Economía (829), 177-188.
Kaufmann, P. J., 1999. Franchising and the choice of self-employment. Journal of Business Venturing, 14(4), 345-362.
Kaufmann, P. J., and Eroglu, S., 1999. Standardization and adaptation in business format franchising. Journal of Business Venturing, 14(1), 69-85.
Lafontaine, F., 1992. Agency theory and franchising: some empirical results. The RAND Journal of Economics, 23(2), 263-283.
Lafontaine, F., and Bhattacharyya, S., 1995. The role of risk in franchising. Journal of Corporate Finance, 2(1), 39-74.
Letza, S., Kirkbride, J., and Sun, X., 2004. Shareholding versus stakeholding: A critical review of corporate governance. Governance: An International Review, 12(3), 242-262.
Marie Doherty, A., Chen, X., and Alexander, N., 2014. The franchise relationship in China: agency and institutional theory perspectives. European Journal of Marketing, 48(9/10), 1664-1689.
Mellewigt, T., Ehrmann, T., and Decker, C., 2011. How does the franchisor’s choice of different control mechanisms affect franchisees’ and employee-managers’ satisfaction? Journal of Retailing, 87(3), 320-331.
Michael, S. C., 2014. Can franchising be an economic development strategy? An empirical investigation. Small Business Economics, 42(3), 611-620.
Michael, S. C., and Combs, J. G., 2008. Entrepreneurial failure: the case of franchisees*. Journal of Small Business Management, 46(1), 73-90.
Michael, S. C., and Moore, H. J., 1995. Returns to franchising. Journal of Corporate Finance, 2(1), 133-155.
Mumdžiev, N., and Windsperger, J., 2011. The structure of decision rights in franchising networks: a property rights perspective. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 35(3), 449-465.
Norton, S. W., 1988. An empirical look at franchising as an organizational form. Journal of Business, 61(2), 197-218.
Nyadzayo, M. W., Matanda, M. J., and Ewing, M. T., 2015. The impact of franchisor support, brand commitment, brand citizenship behavior, and franchisee experience on franchisee-perceived brand image. Journal of Business Research, 68, 1886-1894.
Okoroafor, H., 2014. The barriers to tacit knowledge sharing in franchise organizations. Knowledge Management Research & Practice, 12(1), 97-102.
Pardo-del-Val, M., Martínez-Fuentes, C., López-Sánchez, J. I., and Minguela-Rata, B., 2014. Franchising: the dilemma between standardisation and flexibility. The Service Industries Journal, 34(9-10), 828-842.
Pena, I., 2002. Intellectual capital and business start-up success. Journal of Intellectual Capital, 3(2), 180-198.
Petty, R., and Guthrie, J., 2000. Intellectual capital literature review: measurement, reporting and management. Journal of Intellectual Capital, 1(2), 155-176.
Ring, P. S., and Van de Ven, A. H., 1994. Developmental processes of cooperative interorganizacional relationships. Academy of Management Review, 19(1), 90-118.
Ross, S. A., 1973. The economic theory of agency: The principal’s problem. The American Economic Review, 63, 134-139.
Rubin, P. H., 1973. Expansion of firms. Journal of Political Economy, 81(4), 936-949.
Rubin, P. H., 1978. The theory of the firm and the structure of the franchise contract. Journal of Law and Economics, 21, 223-233.
Salar, M., and Salar, O., 2014. Determining pros and cons of franchising by using swot analysis. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 122, 515-519.
Seawright, K. W., Smith, I. H., Mitchell, R. K., and McClendon, R., 2013. Exploring Entrepreneurial Cognition in Franchisees: A Knowledge-Structure Approach. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 37(2), 201-227.
Shane, S. A., 1998. Making new franchise systems work. Strategic Management Journal, 19(7), 697-707.
Shane, S., and Venkataraman, S., 2000. The promise of entrepreneurship as a field of research. Academy of Management Review, 25(1), 217-226.
Sigué, S. P., and Chintagunta, P., 2009. Advertising strategies in a franchise system. European Journal of Operational Research, 198(2), 655-665.
Stewart, T., and Ruckdeschel, C., 1998. Intellectual capital: The new wealth of organizations. New York: Currency Doubleday.
Teece, D. J., Pisano, G., and Shuen, A., 1997. Dynamic capabilities and strategic management. Strategic Management Journal, 18(7), 509-533.
Vázquez, L., 2005. Las compensaciones en las relaciones de franquicia. Revista de Economía Aplicada, 13(38), 111-122.
Vázquez, L., 2007. Determinants of contract length in franchise contracts. Economics Letters, 97(2), 145-150.
Venkataraman, S., 1997. The distinctive domain of entrepreneurship research. Advances in Entrepreneurship, Firm Emergence and Growth, 3(1), 119-138.
Watson, A., and Stanworth, J., 2006. Franchising and intellectual capital: A franchisee’s perspective. The International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 2(3), 337-349.
Wernerfelt, B., 1984. A resource-based view of the firm. Strategic Management Journal, 5(2), 171-180.
Wimmer, B. S., and Garen, J. E., 1997. Moral hazard, asset specificity, implicit bonding, and compensation: The case of franchising. Economic Inquiry, 35(3), 544-554.
Windsperger, J., and Dant, R. P., 2006. Contractibility and ownership redirection in franchising: A property rights view. Journal of Retailing, 82(3), 259-272.
Winter, S. G., Szulanski, G., Ringov, D., and Jensen, R. J., 2012. Reproducing knowledge: inaccurate replication and failure in franchise organizations. Organization Science, 23(3), 672-685.
Zander, U., and Kogut, B., 1995. Knowledge and the speed of the transfer and imitation of organizational capabilities: An empirical test. Organization Science, 6(1), 76-92.
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