Una imagen vale más que mil palabras: efectos de las advertencias sanitarias visuales en el descenso del consumo de tabaco: un estudio desde la perspectiva del marketing social
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Publicado
20-12-2010
Juan Miguel Rey Pino
Blanca Lacave García
María Isabel Viedma del Jesús
Karine Gallopel Morvan
Resumen
El tabaco está reconocido hoy día como un factor de riesgo muy importante en multitud de enfermedades, representando un grave riesgo para la salud pública. Entre las medidas previstas por la Organización Mundial de la Salud y por la Comisión Europea está la utilización de advertencias sanitarias sobre los efectos del tabaco en las personas. En España actualmente esas advertencias contienen solo texto. El presente trabajo centra su atención en conocer la eficacia de esas advertencias sanitarias actuales y conocer la eficacia potencial que podrían tener un banco de imágenes y texto creadas por la Unión Europea. Este trabajo forma parte de una red de proyectos que se están desarrollando también en Reino Unido y Francia y presenta los resultados realizados con metodología cualitativa –entrevistas en profundidad–.
Cómo citar
Rey Pino, J. M., Lacave García, B., Viedma del Jesús, M. I., & Gallopel Morvan, K. (2010). Una imagen vale más que mil palabras: efectos de las advertencias sanitarias visuales en el descenso del consumo de tabaco: un estudio desde la perspectiva del marketing social. Cuadernos De Gestión, 10(3), 149–165. https://doi.org/10.5295/cdg.100195jr
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Keywords
Tabaco, esquelas sanitarias combinadas, Marketing Social, investigación cualitativa
References
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Ashley, M.J.; Cohen, J.; Bull, S.; Ferrence, R.G.; Poland, B.; Pederson L.L. y Gao, J. (2000): “Knowledge about tobacco and attitudes toward tobacco control: How different are smokers and non smokers”, Canadian Journal of Public Health, n° 91, pp. 376-380.
Ayanian, J.Z. y Cleary, P.D. (1999): “Perceived risks of heart disease and cancer among cigarette smokers”, Journal of The American Medical Association, vol. 281, nº 11, pp. 1019-1021.
Barlow, T. y Wogalter, M.S. (1993): “Alcohol beverage warnings in magazine and televisión advertisements”, Journal of Consumer Research, n° 20 (june), pp. 147-156.
Beede, P.; Lawson, R.; Shepherd, M. (1991): The promotional impact of cigarette packaging: a study of adolescent responses to cigarette plain-packs, Dunedin, Nouvelle-Zélande. Department of Marketing, University of Otago.
Beltramini, R.F. (1988): “Perceived believability of warning label information present in cigarette advertising”, Journal of Advertising, n° 17, pp. 26-32.
Bhalla, G. y Lastovicka, J.L. (1984): “The impact of changing cigarette warning message content and format”, Advances in Consumer Research, n° 11, pp. 305-310.
Borland, R. (1997): “Tobacco health warnings and smoking-related cognitions and behaviours”, Addiction, vol. 92, nº 11, pp. 1427-1435.
Brubaker, R.G. y Mitby, S.K. (1990): “Health-risk warning labels on smokeless tobacco products: Are they effective?”, Addictive Behaviors, n° 15, pp. 115-118.
CISMARU, M. y LAVACK, A. M. (2006): “Marketing Communications and Protection Motivation Theory: Examining Consumer Decision-Making”, International Review on Public and NonProfit Marketing, vol. 3, nº 2, pp. 9-24.
CISMARU, M. y LAVACK, A. M. (2007): “Social Marketing Campaigns Aimed at Preventing and Controlling Obesity: A Review and Recommendations”, International Review on Public and Non-Profit Marketing, vol. 4, nº 1-2, pp. 9-30.
COMUNIDADES EUROPEAS. DIRECCIÓN GENERAL DE SALUD Y CONSUMIDORES (2009): El control del tabaco en la U.E. Folleto informativo. Bruselas. Consultado el 25/10/09 en http://ec.europa.eu/health/ph_information/documents/tobacco_control_es.pdf
Cragg, R. (1990): Health warnings on cigarette and tobacco packs: Report on research to inform European standardization, Health Education Authority and the Department of Health.
Cullingford, R.; Da Cruz, L.; Webb, S.; Shean, R. y Jamrozik, K. (1988): “Legibility of health warnings on billboards that advertise cigarettes”, Medical Journal of Australia, n° 148, pp. 336-338.
Daube, M. (1982): “In support of health warnings”, World Smoking and Health, vol. 7, nº3, pp. 42-46.
Duffy, S.A. y Burton, D. (2000): “Cartoon characters as tobacco warning labels”, Archives of Pediatric Adolescent Medicine, n° 154, pp. 1230-1236.
EUROPEAN HEALTH RESEARCH PARTNERSHIP AND CENTRE FOR TOBACCO CONTROL RESEARCH (2002): Research into the Labeling of Tobacco products in Europe. Research report submitted to the European Commission.
Festinger, L. (1957): A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance, Evanston, Il., Harper Row.
Fischer, P. M.; Krugman, D. M.; Fletcher, J. E.; Fox, R. J. y Rojas, T. H. (1993): “An evaluation of health warnings in cigarette advertisements using standard market research methods: What does it mean to warn?”, Tobacco Control, n°2, pp. 279-285.
Fischer, P.M.; Richards, J.W.; Berman, E.F. y Krugman, D.M. (1989): “Recall and eye tracking study of adolescents viewing tobacco advertisements”, The Journal of the American Medical Association, n°261, pp. 84-89.
GALLOPEL-MORVAN, K.; GABRIEL, P.; LE GALL-ELY, M.; RIEUNIER, S. Y URIEN, B. (en prensa): “The use of visual warnings in social marketing: the case of tobacco”, Journal of Business Research.
GREENFIELD, T.K.; GRAVES, K.L. Y KASKUTAS, L.A. (1999): “Long-term effects of alcohol warning labels: Findings from a comparison of the United States and Ontario, Canada”, Psychology and Marketing, vol. 16, nº 3, pp. 261-282.
Hammond, D.; Fong, G.T.; McDonald, P.W.; Cameron, R. y Brown, K.S. (2003): “Impact of the graphic Canadian warning labels on adult smoking behavior”, Tobacco Control, nº 12, pp. 391-395.
HAMMOND, D. (2004): Cigarette warning labels: evidence and issues in tobacco labelling policy. International Tobacco Control Evaluation Survey. University of Waterloo.
Hammond, D.; Fong, G.T.; McNeill, A.; Borland, R. y Cummings, K.M. (2006): “Effectiveness of cigarette warning labels in informing smokers about the risks of smoking: findings from the International Tobacco Control four country survey”, Tobacco Control, nº 15, pp. 19-25.
HOEK, J.; MAUBACH, N.; GENDALL, P. Y SEARLE, L. (2005): Effects of on-pack warning images on young adult smokers and non smokers. Marketing and Public Policy Conference, Washington, 19-21 mayo.
Jaynes, L. y Boles, D.B. (1990): The effects of symbols on warning compliance, Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 34th Annual Meeting, Santa Monica, CA, Human Factors Society, pp. 984-987.
Laughery, K.; Young, S.; Vaugel, K. y Brelsford, J. (1993): “The noticeability of warnings on alcoholic beverages”, Journal of Public Policy Marketing, n° 12, pp. 38-56.
Liefeld, J.P. (1999): The relative importance of the size, content and pictures on cigarette package warning messages, Proyecto de Investigación, Department of Consumer Studies, University of Guelph.
Linthwaite, P. (1985): “Health warnings”, Health Education Journal, vol. 44, nº 4, pp. 218-219.
MacKinnon D.P.; Pentz, M.A. y Stacy, A.W. (1993): “The alcohol warning label and adolescents: The first year”, American Journal of Public Health, n° 12, pp. 147-150.
Magat, W.; Viscusi, W. y Huber, J. (1988): “Consumer processing of hazard warning information”, Journal of Risk Uncertainty, n° 1, pp. 201-232.
Mahood, G. (1999): “Warnings that tell the truth: breaking new ground in Canada”, Tobacco Control, nº 8, pp. 356-361 (Winter).
Malouff, J.; Schutte, N.; Wiener, K.; Brancazio, C. y Fish, D. (1993): “Important characteristics of warning displays on alcohol containers”, Journal of Studies on Alcohol, n° 54, pp. 457-461.
Marin, G. (1994): “Self-reported awareness of the presence of product warning messages and signs by hispanics in San Francisco”, Public Health Report, n° 109, pp. 275-283.
Myers, M.L.; Iscoe, C.; Jennings, C.; Lenox, W.; Minsky, E. y Sacks, A. (1981): Staff report on the cigarette advertising investigation, Washington, D.C., Federal Trade Commission.
Naett, C. y Howie, C. (1993): The Labelling of Tobacco Products in the European Union, European Bureau for Action on Smoking Prevention.
Nilsson, T. (1999): Legibility and visual effectiveness of some proposed and current health warnings on cigarette packages, Bureau of Tobacco Control, Health Protection Branch, Environmental Health Division, Health Canada.
Popper, E.T. y Murray, K.B. (1989): “Communication effectiveness and formal effects on inad disclosure of health warnings”, Journal Public Policy Marketing, n° 8, pp. 109-123.
Prochaska, J. O. y DiClemente, C. C. (1983): “Stages and processes of self-change of smoking: toward an integrative model of change”, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, nº 51, pp. 390-395.
Purdy, J.E. y Luepnitz, R.R. (1982): “Immediate and long-term retention for pictorial and verbal stimuli”, Perceptual and Motor Skills, n° 55, pp. 1079-1082.
Richards, J.W.; Fischer, P. y Conner, F.G. (1989): “The warnings on cigarette packages are ineffective”, The Journal of the American Medical Association, vol. 261, nº 1, p.45.
Riley, M.W.; Cochran, D.J. y Ballard, J.L. (1982): “An investigation of preferred shapes for warning labels”, Human Factors, n° 24 (december), pp. 737-742.
Robinson, T.N. y Killen, J.D. (1997): “Do cigarette warnings labels reduce smoking? Paradoxical effects among adolescents”, Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, n° 151, pp. 267-272.
Schoenbaum, M. (1997): “Do smokers understand the mortality effects of smoking? Evidence from the health and retirement survey”, American Journal of Public Health, vol. 87, nº 5, pp. 755-759.
SHAFEY, O.; ERIKSEN, M.; ROSS, H. Y MACKAY, J. (2009): The Tobacco Atlas. Atlanta, Georgia, 3ª edición, American Cancer Society.
Sistema Sanitario Público de Andalucía (2005): Plan Integral de Tabaquismo de Andalucía 2005-2010, Sevilla, Consejería de Salud, Junta de Andalucía.
Weinstein, N.D. (1998): “Accuracy of smokers’ risk perceptions”, Annals of Behavioral Medicine, vol. 20, nº 2, pp. 135-140.
Werch, C.E. y DiClemente, C.C. (1994): “A multi-component stage model for matching drug prevention strategies and messages to youth stage of use”, Health Education Research, vol. 9, nº 1, pp. 37-46.
Wogalter, M.S.; Godfrey, H.J.; Fontenelle, F.M.; Desaulniers, D.; Rothstein, M.A. y Laughery, K.R. (1987): “Effectiveness of warnings”, Human Factors, vol. 29, nº 5, pp. 599-612.
VAZQUEZ, J.L.; NAGHIU, A.; GUTIÉRREZ, P. Y GARCÍA, M. P. (2008): “Real Effectiveness of Anti-Tobacco Campaigns. An Exploratory Analysis in the Spanish Context”, Buletinul Universitatii de Stiinte Agricole si Medicina Veterinara Cluj-Napoca. Seria Horticulture, vol. 65, nº2, pp. 396-402.
Wogalter, M.S.; Scott, T.S. y McKenna, N.A. (1989): “The effects of cost and social influence on warning compliance”, Human Factors, n° 31 (abril), pp. 133-140.
World Health Organisation. (2008): WHO Report on the global tobacco epidemic: The MPower Package, Geneva, World Health Organisation.
Young, S.L. (1991): Increasing the noticeability of warnings: Effects of pictorial, color, signal icon and border, Proceedings of the Human Factor Society 35th Annual Meeting, Santa Monica, CA, Human Factor Society, pp. 580-584.
Young, S.L. y Wogalter, M.S. (1990): “Comprehension and memory of instruction manual warnings: Conspicuous print and pictorial icons”, Human Factors, n° 32 (diciembre), pp. 637-649.
Zollar, H. (1993): “Canada leads the way with world’s toughest warnings”, World Smoking and Health, vol. 18(2), pp. 5-6.
Ashley, M.J.; Cohen, J.; Bull, S.; Ferrence, R.G.; Poland, B.; Pederson L.L. y Gao, J. (2000): “Knowledge about tobacco and attitudes toward tobacco control: How different are smokers and non smokers”, Canadian Journal of Public Health, n° 91, pp. 376-380.
Ayanian, J.Z. y Cleary, P.D. (1999): “Perceived risks of heart disease and cancer among cigarette smokers”, Journal of The American Medical Association, vol. 281, nº 11, pp. 1019-1021.
Barlow, T. y Wogalter, M.S. (1993): “Alcohol beverage warnings in magazine and televisión advertisements”, Journal of Consumer Research, n° 20 (june), pp. 147-156.
Beede, P.; Lawson, R.; Shepherd, M. (1991): The promotional impact of cigarette packaging: a study of adolescent responses to cigarette plain-packs, Dunedin, Nouvelle-Zélande. Department of Marketing, University of Otago.
Beltramini, R.F. (1988): “Perceived believability of warning label information present in cigarette advertising”, Journal of Advertising, n° 17, pp. 26-32.
Bhalla, G. y Lastovicka, J.L. (1984): “The impact of changing cigarette warning message content and format”, Advances in Consumer Research, n° 11, pp. 305-310.
Borland, R. (1997): “Tobacco health warnings and smoking-related cognitions and behaviours”, Addiction, vol. 92, nº 11, pp. 1427-1435.
Brubaker, R.G. y Mitby, S.K. (1990): “Health-risk warning labels on smokeless tobacco products: Are they effective?”, Addictive Behaviors, n° 15, pp. 115-118.
CISMARU, M. y LAVACK, A. M. (2006): “Marketing Communications and Protection Motivation Theory: Examining Consumer Decision-Making”, International Review on Public and NonProfit Marketing, vol. 3, nº 2, pp. 9-24.
CISMARU, M. y LAVACK, A. M. (2007): “Social Marketing Campaigns Aimed at Preventing and Controlling Obesity: A Review and Recommendations”, International Review on Public and Non-Profit Marketing, vol. 4, nº 1-2, pp. 9-30.
COMUNIDADES EUROPEAS. DIRECCIÓN GENERAL DE SALUD Y CONSUMIDORES (2009): El control del tabaco en la U.E. Folleto informativo. Bruselas. Consultado el 25/10/09 en http://ec.europa.eu/health/ph_information/documents/tobacco_control_es.pdf
Cragg, R. (1990): Health warnings on cigarette and tobacco packs: Report on research to inform European standardization, Health Education Authority and the Department of Health.
Cullingford, R.; Da Cruz, L.; Webb, S.; Shean, R. y Jamrozik, K. (1988): “Legibility of health warnings on billboards that advertise cigarettes”, Medical Journal of Australia, n° 148, pp. 336-338.
Daube, M. (1982): “In support of health warnings”, World Smoking and Health, vol. 7, nº3, pp. 42-46.
Duffy, S.A. y Burton, D. (2000): “Cartoon characters as tobacco warning labels”, Archives of Pediatric Adolescent Medicine, n° 154, pp. 1230-1236.
EUROPEAN HEALTH RESEARCH PARTNERSHIP AND CENTRE FOR TOBACCO CONTROL RESEARCH (2002): Research into the Labeling of Tobacco products in Europe. Research report submitted to the European Commission.
Festinger, L. (1957): A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance, Evanston, Il., Harper Row.
Fischer, P. M.; Krugman, D. M.; Fletcher, J. E.; Fox, R. J. y Rojas, T. H. (1993): “An evaluation of health warnings in cigarette advertisements using standard market research methods: What does it mean to warn?”, Tobacco Control, n°2, pp. 279-285.
Fischer, P.M.; Richards, J.W.; Berman, E.F. y Krugman, D.M. (1989): “Recall and eye tracking study of adolescents viewing tobacco advertisements”, The Journal of the American Medical Association, n°261, pp. 84-89.
GALLOPEL-MORVAN, K.; GABRIEL, P.; LE GALL-ELY, M.; RIEUNIER, S. Y URIEN, B. (en prensa): “The use of visual warnings in social marketing: the case of tobacco”, Journal of Business Research.
GREENFIELD, T.K.; GRAVES, K.L. Y KASKUTAS, L.A. (1999): “Long-term effects of alcohol warning labels: Findings from a comparison of the United States and Ontario, Canada”, Psychology and Marketing, vol. 16, nº 3, pp. 261-282.
Hammond, D.; Fong, G.T.; McDonald, P.W.; Cameron, R. y Brown, K.S. (2003): “Impact of the graphic Canadian warning labels on adult smoking behavior”, Tobacco Control, nº 12, pp. 391-395.
HAMMOND, D. (2004): Cigarette warning labels: evidence and issues in tobacco labelling policy. International Tobacco Control Evaluation Survey. University of Waterloo.
Hammond, D.; Fong, G.T.; McNeill, A.; Borland, R. y Cummings, K.M. (2006): “Effectiveness of cigarette warning labels in informing smokers about the risks of smoking: findings from the International Tobacco Control four country survey”, Tobacco Control, nº 15, pp. 19-25.
HOEK, J.; MAUBACH, N.; GENDALL, P. Y SEARLE, L. (2005): Effects of on-pack warning images on young adult smokers and non smokers. Marketing and Public Policy Conference, Washington, 19-21 mayo.
Jaynes, L. y Boles, D.B. (1990): The effects of symbols on warning compliance, Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 34th Annual Meeting, Santa Monica, CA, Human Factors Society, pp. 984-987.
Laughery, K.; Young, S.; Vaugel, K. y Brelsford, J. (1993): “The noticeability of warnings on alcoholic beverages”, Journal of Public Policy Marketing, n° 12, pp. 38-56.
Liefeld, J.P. (1999): The relative importance of the size, content and pictures on cigarette package warning messages, Proyecto de Investigación, Department of Consumer Studies, University of Guelph.
Linthwaite, P. (1985): “Health warnings”, Health Education Journal, vol. 44, nº 4, pp. 218-219.
MacKinnon D.P.; Pentz, M.A. y Stacy, A.W. (1993): “The alcohol warning label and adolescents: The first year”, American Journal of Public Health, n° 12, pp. 147-150.
Magat, W.; Viscusi, W. y Huber, J. (1988): “Consumer processing of hazard warning information”, Journal of Risk Uncertainty, n° 1, pp. 201-232.
Mahood, G. (1999): “Warnings that tell the truth: breaking new ground in Canada”, Tobacco Control, nº 8, pp. 356-361 (Winter).
Malouff, J.; Schutte, N.; Wiener, K.; Brancazio, C. y Fish, D. (1993): “Important characteristics of warning displays on alcohol containers”, Journal of Studies on Alcohol, n° 54, pp. 457-461.
Marin, G. (1994): “Self-reported awareness of the presence of product warning messages and signs by hispanics in San Francisco”, Public Health Report, n° 109, pp. 275-283.
Myers, M.L.; Iscoe, C.; Jennings, C.; Lenox, W.; Minsky, E. y Sacks, A. (1981): Staff report on the cigarette advertising investigation, Washington, D.C., Federal Trade Commission.
Naett, C. y Howie, C. (1993): The Labelling of Tobacco Products in the European Union, European Bureau for Action on Smoking Prevention.
Nilsson, T. (1999): Legibility and visual effectiveness of some proposed and current health warnings on cigarette packages, Bureau of Tobacco Control, Health Protection Branch, Environmental Health Division, Health Canada.
Popper, E.T. y Murray, K.B. (1989): “Communication effectiveness and formal effects on inad disclosure of health warnings”, Journal Public Policy Marketing, n° 8, pp. 109-123.
Prochaska, J. O. y DiClemente, C. C. (1983): “Stages and processes of self-change of smoking: toward an integrative model of change”, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, nº 51, pp. 390-395.
Purdy, J.E. y Luepnitz, R.R. (1982): “Immediate and long-term retention for pictorial and verbal stimuli”, Perceptual and Motor Skills, n° 55, pp. 1079-1082.
Richards, J.W.; Fischer, P. y Conner, F.G. (1989): “The warnings on cigarette packages are ineffective”, The Journal of the American Medical Association, vol. 261, nº 1, p.45.
Riley, M.W.; Cochran, D.J. y Ballard, J.L. (1982): “An investigation of preferred shapes for warning labels”, Human Factors, n° 24 (december), pp. 737-742.
Robinson, T.N. y Killen, J.D. (1997): “Do cigarette warnings labels reduce smoking? Paradoxical effects among adolescents”, Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, n° 151, pp. 267-272.
Schoenbaum, M. (1997): “Do smokers understand the mortality effects of smoking? Evidence from the health and retirement survey”, American Journal of Public Health, vol. 87, nº 5, pp. 755-759.
SHAFEY, O.; ERIKSEN, M.; ROSS, H. Y MACKAY, J. (2009): The Tobacco Atlas. Atlanta, Georgia, 3ª edición, American Cancer Society.
Sistema Sanitario Público de Andalucía (2005): Plan Integral de Tabaquismo de Andalucía 2005-2010, Sevilla, Consejería de Salud, Junta de Andalucía.
Weinstein, N.D. (1998): “Accuracy of smokers’ risk perceptions”, Annals of Behavioral Medicine, vol. 20, nº 2, pp. 135-140.
Werch, C.E. y DiClemente, C.C. (1994): “A multi-component stage model for matching drug prevention strategies and messages to youth stage of use”, Health Education Research, vol. 9, nº 1, pp. 37-46.
Wogalter, M.S.; Godfrey, H.J.; Fontenelle, F.M.; Desaulniers, D.; Rothstein, M.A. y Laughery, K.R. (1987): “Effectiveness of warnings”, Human Factors, vol. 29, nº 5, pp. 599-612.
VAZQUEZ, J.L.; NAGHIU, A.; GUTIÉRREZ, P. Y GARCÍA, M. P. (2008): “Real Effectiveness of Anti-Tobacco Campaigns. An Exploratory Analysis in the Spanish Context”, Buletinul Universitatii de Stiinte Agricole si Medicina Veterinara Cluj-Napoca. Seria Horticulture, vol. 65, nº2, pp. 396-402.
Wogalter, M.S.; Scott, T.S. y McKenna, N.A. (1989): “The effects of cost and social influence on warning compliance”, Human Factors, n° 31 (abril), pp. 133-140.
World Health Organisation. (2008): WHO Report on the global tobacco epidemic: The MPower Package, Geneva, World Health Organisation.
Young, S.L. (1991): Increasing the noticeability of warnings: Effects of pictorial, color, signal icon and border, Proceedings of the Human Factor Society 35th Annual Meeting, Santa Monica, CA, Human Factor Society, pp. 580-584.
Young, S.L. y Wogalter, M.S. (1990): “Comprehension and memory of instruction manual warnings: Conspicuous print and pictorial icons”, Human Factors, n° 32 (diciembre), pp. 637-649.
Zollar, H. (1993): “Canada leads the way with world’s toughest warnings”, World Smoking and Health, vol. 18(2), pp. 5-6.
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