Análisis de la eficacia del coaching ejecutivo: un estudio desde la perspectiva del coachee
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Publicado
18-12-2019
Eneka Albizu
Izaskun Rekalde
Jon Landeta
Pilar Fernández Ferrín
Resumen
El coaching ejecutivo se ha convertido en una de las principales estrategias de desarrollo directivo de nuestros tiempos. Sin embargo, es un campo del área de desarrollo de RR.HH. en el que predomina la literatura profesional sobre la académica y que está necesitado de más investigación. Este trabajo analiza la relación existente entre los principales factores explicativos de la eficacia del coaching ejecutivo y los diferentes tipos de resultados que se pueden alcanzar. Este estudio aporta además una prueba empírica de la eficacia del coaching ejecutivo utilizando los tres primeros niveles del modelo de evaluación de Kirkpatrick (1975). Se analizan las respuestas de 176 directivos valorando sus percepciones acerca de su última experiencia de coaching ejecutivo. Se utiliza modelización estructural para relacionar factores que inciden en el éxito del coaching ejecutivo con los resultados del mismo. El modelo resultante pone de relieve la influencia que ejercen el coach, y en menor medida el coachee y el proceso, sobre la satisfacción del coachee. También muestra cómo se materializa la influencia ejercida por el coach sobre los aprendizajes del coachee. Asimismo, los resultados sugieren la existencia de una relación positiva entre satisfacción, aprendizaje y cambio de comportamiento, tal y como sugiere Kirkpatrick. Un focus group final en el que han tomado parte directivos de recursos humanos, coachees y coaches ha contribuido a la mejora de la discusión e interpretación de los resultados. A la luz de estos resultados, se plantean implicaciones para el ámbito profesional y académico.
Cómo citar
Albizu, E., Rekalde, I., Landeta, J., & Fernández Ferrín, P. (2019). Análisis de la eficacia del coaching ejecutivo: un estudio desde la perspectiva del coachee. Cuadernos De Gestión, 19(2), 33–52. https://doi.org/10.5295/cdg.170876ea
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Keywords
Coaching ejecutivo, desarrollo directivo, factores, resultados, eficacia
References
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Alliger, G. M., Tannenbaum, S. L., Bennett, W., Traver, H. and Shotland, A., 1997. A meta-analysis of the relations among training criteria. Personnel Psychology, 50 (2), 341–358.
Bachkirova, T., Sibley, J. and Myers, A., 2015. Developing and applying a new instrument for microanalysis of the coaching process: The Coaching Process Q-Set. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 26 (4), 431–462.
Baron, L. and Morin, L., 2009a. The coach-coachee relationship in executive coaching: A field study. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 20 (1), 85–106.
Baron, L. and Morin, L., 2009b. The impact of executive coaching on self-efficacy related to management soft-skills. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 31 (1), 18–38.
Bates, R., 2004. A critical analysis of evaluation practice: the Kirkpatrick model and the principle of beneficence. Evaluation and Program Planning, 27 (3), 341–347.
Blackman, A.; Moscardo, G. and Gray, D. E., 2016. Challenges for the theory and practice of business coaching: A systematic review of empirical evidence. Human Resource Development Review, 15 (4), 459–486.
Boyce, L. A., Jackson, R. J. and Neal, L. J., 2010. Building successful leadership coaching relationships. Journal of Management Development, 29 (10), 914–931.
Bozer, G., Sarros, J. C. and Santora, J. C., 2014a. Academic background and credibility in executive coaching effectiveness. Personnel Review, 43 (6), 881–897.
Bozer, G., Sarros, J. C. and Santora, J. C., 2014b. Executive coaching: Guidelines that work. Development and Learning in Organizations: An International Journal, 28 (4), 9–14.
Carter, A., Blackman, A., Hicks, B., Williams, M. and Hay, R., 2017. Perspectives on effective coaching by those who have been coached. International Journal of Training and Development, 21 (2), 73-91.
Chen, G., Gully, S. M. and Eden, D., 2001. Validation of a new general self-efficacy scale. Organizational Research Methods, 4 (1), 62–83.
Colquitt, J. A., LePine J. A. and Noe, R. A., 2000. Toward an integrative theory of training motivation: A meta-analytic path analysis of 20 years of research. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85 (5), 678–707.
CompassPoint Nonprofit Services. 2003. Executive Coaching Project: Evaluation of Findings. Harder Company Community Research, San Francisco, CA. Available at http://www.compasspoint.org/sites/default/files/docs/research/6_execcoaching.pdf [consulted October 2016]
De Haan, E., Culpin, V. and Curd, J., 2011. Executive coaching in practice: what determines helpfulness for clients of coaching?. Personnel Review, 40 (1), 24–44.
De Haan, E., Duckworth, A., Birch, D. and Jones, C., 2013. Executive coaching outcome research: The contribution of common factors such as relationship, personality match, and self-efficacy. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 65 (1), 40–57.
De Haan, E., Grant, A.M., Burger, Y. and Eriksson, P-O., 2016. A large-scale study of executive and workplace coaching: The relative contributions of relationship, personality match, and self-efficacy. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 68 (3), 189–207.
Ellinger, A. D., Ellinger, A. E. and Keller, S. B., 2003. Supervisory coaching behavior, employee satisfaction, and warehouse employee performance: A dyadic perspective in the distribution industry. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 14 (4), 435–458.
Ely, K. and Zaccaro, S. J., 2011. Evaluating the effectiveness of coaching - A focus on stakeholders, criteria, and data collection methods. In G. Hernez-Broome and L. A. Boyce (Eds.), Advancing Executive Coaching: Setting the Course for Successful Leadership Coaching (pp. 319–349). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Ely, K., Boyce, L. A., Nelson, J. K., Zaccaro, S. J., Hernez-Broome, G. and Whyman, W., 2010. Evaluating leadership coaching: A review and integrated framework. The Leadership Quarterly, 21 (4), 585–599.
Feldman, D. C. and Lankau, M. J., 2005. Executive coaching: A review and agenda for future research. Journal of Management, 31 (6), 829–848.
Finn, F. A., Mason, C. M. and Bradley, L. M., 2007. Doing Well with Executive Coaching: Psychological and Behavioral Impacts. Academy of Management Conference, Philadelphia, PA. Available at http://eprints.qut.edu.au/10125/1/10125.pdf. [consulted July 2016]
Gan, G.C. and Chong, C. W., 2015. Coaching relationship in executive coaching: a Malaysian study. Journal of Management Development, 34 (4), 476–493.
Gessnitzer, S. and Kauffeld, S., 2015. The working alliance in coaching: why behavior is the key to success. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 51 (2), 177–197.
Giangreco, A., Carugati, A. and Sebastiano, A., 2010. Are we doing the right thing? Food for thought on training evaluation and its context. Personnel Review, 39 (2), 162–177.
Grant, A. M., 2013. The efficacy of coaching. In J. Passmore, D. Peterson and T. Freire (Eds.), The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of the Psychology of Coaching and Mentoring (pp. 15–37). Oxford: John Wiley and Sons.
Grover, S. and Furnham, A. 2016., Coaching as a developmental intervention in organizations: A systematic review of its effectiveness and the mechanisms underlying it. PLoS ONE, 11 (7), e0159137.
Gyllensten, K. and Palmer, S., 2006. Workplace stress: Can it be reduced by coaching. The Coaching Psychologist, 2 (1), 17–22.
Hagen, M. S., and Peterson, S. L., 2014. Coaching scales a review of the literature and comparative analysis. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 16 (2), 222–241.
Hall, D. T., Otazo, K. L. and Hollenbeck, G. P., 1999. Behind closed doors: What really happens in executive coaching. Organizational Dynamics, 27 (3), 39–52.
Holton, E. F., 1996. The flawed four level evaluation model. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 7 (1), 5–21.
Jones, G. and Spooner, K., 2006. Coaching high achievers. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 58 (1), 40-50.
Jones, R. J., Woods, S. A. and Guillaume, Y. R. F., 2016. The effectiveness of workplace coaching: A meta-analysis of learning and performance outcomes from coaching. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 89, 249–277.
Joo, B. K., 2005. Executive coaching: A conceptual framework from an integrative review of practice and research. Human Resource Development Review, 4 (4), 462–488.
Kilburg, R. R., 1997. Coaching and executive character: core problems and basic approaches. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 49 (4), 281-299.
Kilburg, R. R., 2001. Facilitating intervention adherence in executive coaching: A model and methods. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 53 (4), 251–267.
Kim, S., Egan, T. M. Kim, W. and Kim, J., 2013. The impact of managerial coaching behavior on employee work-related reactions. Journal of Business Psychology, 28 (3), 315–330.
Kirkpatrick, D. L., 1975. Evaluating Training Programs. Madison, WI: American Society for Training and Development.
Kombarakaran, F. A., Yang, J. A., Baker, M. N. and Fernandes, P. B., 2008. Executive coaching: it works!. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 60 (1), 78–90.
Kovacs, L. and Corrie, S., 2016. What can realist evaluation tell us about how coaching interventions work?. The Coaching Psychologist, 12 (2), 59-66.
Kraiger, K., Ford, J. K. and Salas, E., 1993. Application of cognitive, skill-based, and affective theories of learning outcomes to new methods of training evaluation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78 (2), 311–328.
Lambert, M. J. and Barley, D. E., 2001. Research summary on the therapeutic relationship and psychotherapy outcome. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 38 (4), 357–361.
Lewis-Duarte, M. and Bligh, M., 2012. Agents of ‘influence’: exploring the usage, timing, and outcomes of executive coaching tactics. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 33 (3), 255–281.
Lim, D. H. and Morris, M. L., 2006. Influence of trainee characteristics, instructional satisfaction, and organizational climate on perceived learning and training transfer. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 17 (1), 85–115.
Lopez, M.L., 2017. Do we need alliance factor definitions unique to coaching? Clients’ operational definitions of research-based definitions. International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring, 15 (1), 42–64.
Luthans, F. and Peterson, S. J., 2003. 360 degree feedback with systematic coaching: Empirical analysis suggests a winning combination, Human Resource Management, 42 (3), 243–256.
MacKie, D., 2014. The effectiveness of strength-based executive coaching in enhancing full range leadership development: A controlled study. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 66 (2), 118–137.
Mardia, K. V. (1970). Measures of multivariate skewness and kurtosis with applications. Biometrika, 57(3), 519-530.
Noe, R. A. and Wilk, S. L., 1993. Investigation of the Factors that Influence Employees Participation in Development Activities. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78 (2), 291–302.
Olivero, G., Bane, K. D. and Kopelman, R. E., 1997. Executive coaching as a transfer of training tool: Effects on productivity in a public agency. Public Personnel Management, 26 (4), 461–469.
Osatuke, K., Yanovsky, B., and Ramsel, D., 2017. Executive coaching: New framework for evaluation. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 69 (3), 172-186.
Passmore, J. and Fillery-Travis, A., 2011. A critical review of executive coaching research: a decade of progress and what’s to come. Coaching: An International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice, 4 (2), 70–88.
Pershing, J. A. and Pershing, J. L., 2001. Ineffective reaction evaluation. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 12 (1), 73–90.
Rekalde, I., Landeta, J. and Albizu, E., 2015. Determining factors in the effectiveness of executive coaching as a management development tool. Management Decision, 53 (8), 1677–1697.
Rekalde, I., Landeta, J., Albizu, E. and Fernández-Ferrín, P., 2017. Is executive coaching more effective than other management training and development methods?. Management Decision, 55 (10), 2149-2162.
Rhoades, L. and Eisenberger, R., 2002. Perceived organizational support: A review of the literature. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87 (4), 698–714.
Russ-Eft, D. F., Dickinson, P. D. and Levine, R., 2005. Instructor quality affecting emergency medical technician (EMT) preparedness: a LEADS project. International Journal of Training and Development, 9 (4), 256–70.
Sitzmann, T., Brown, K. G., Casper, W. J., Ely, K. and Zimmerman, R. D., 2008. A review and meta-analysis of the nomological network of trainee reactions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93 (2), 280–95.
Smither, J. W., London, M., Flautt, R., Vargas, Y. and Kucine, I., 2003. Can working with an executive coach improve multi-source feedback ratings over time? A quasi-experimental field study. Personnel Psychology, 56 (1), 23–44.
Stajkovic, A. D. and Luthans, F., 1997. A meta-analysis of the effects of organizational behavior modification on task performance, 1975–1995. Academy of Management Journal, 40 (5), 1122–1149.
Thach, E. 2002., The impact of executive coaching and 360 feedback on leadership effectiveness. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 23 (4), 205–214.
Theeboom, T., Beersma, B. and Van Viansen, A. E. M., 2014. Does coaching work? A meta-analysis on the effects of coaching on individual level outcomes in an organizational context. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 9 (1), 1–18.
Tracey, J. B., Hinkin, T. R., Tannenbaum, S. and Mathieu, J. E., 2001. The influence of individual characteristics and the work environment on varying levels of training outcomes. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 12 (1), 5–23.
Tsai, P. C. F., Yen, Y. F., Huang, L. C. and Huang, I. C., 2007. A study on motivating employees learning commitment in the post-downsizing era: Job satisfaction perspective. Journal of World Business, 42 (2), 157–169.
Wasylyshyn, K. M., 2003. Executive coaching: An outcome study. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 55 (2), 94–106.
Wentzel, J, 2012. Modelling financial services adoption through an intermediary in South Africa: TAM and SEM approach. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Pretoria.
Alliger, G. M., Tannenbaum, S. L., Bennett, W., Traver, H. and Shotland, A., 1997. A meta-analysis of the relations among training criteria. Personnel Psychology, 50 (2), 341–358.
Bachkirova, T., Sibley, J. and Myers, A., 2015. Developing and applying a new instrument for microanalysis of the coaching process: The Coaching Process Q-Set. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 26 (4), 431–462.
Baron, L. and Morin, L., 2009a. The coach-coachee relationship in executive coaching: A field study. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 20 (1), 85–106.
Baron, L. and Morin, L., 2009b. The impact of executive coaching on self-efficacy related to management soft-skills. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 31 (1), 18–38.
Bates, R., 2004. A critical analysis of evaluation practice: the Kirkpatrick model and the principle of beneficence. Evaluation and Program Planning, 27 (3), 341–347.
Blackman, A.; Moscardo, G. and Gray, D. E., 2016. Challenges for the theory and practice of business coaching: A systematic review of empirical evidence. Human Resource Development Review, 15 (4), 459–486.
Boyce, L. A., Jackson, R. J. and Neal, L. J., 2010. Building successful leadership coaching relationships. Journal of Management Development, 29 (10), 914–931.
Bozer, G., Sarros, J. C. and Santora, J. C., 2014a. Academic background and credibility in executive coaching effectiveness. Personnel Review, 43 (6), 881–897.
Bozer, G., Sarros, J. C. and Santora, J. C., 2014b. Executive coaching: Guidelines that work. Development and Learning in Organizations: An International Journal, 28 (4), 9–14.
Carter, A., Blackman, A., Hicks, B., Williams, M. and Hay, R., 2017. Perspectives on effective coaching by those who have been coached. International Journal of Training and Development, 21 (2), 73-91.
Chen, G., Gully, S. M. and Eden, D., 2001. Validation of a new general self-efficacy scale. Organizational Research Methods, 4 (1), 62–83.
Colquitt, J. A., LePine J. A. and Noe, R. A., 2000. Toward an integrative theory of training motivation: A meta-analytic path analysis of 20 years of research. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85 (5), 678–707.
CompassPoint Nonprofit Services. 2003. Executive Coaching Project: Evaluation of Findings. Harder Company Community Research, San Francisco, CA. Available at http://www.compasspoint.org/sites/default/files/docs/research/6_execcoaching.pdf [consulted October 2016]
De Haan, E., Culpin, V. and Curd, J., 2011. Executive coaching in practice: what determines helpfulness for clients of coaching?. Personnel Review, 40 (1), 24–44.
De Haan, E., Duckworth, A., Birch, D. and Jones, C., 2013. Executive coaching outcome research: The contribution of common factors such as relationship, personality match, and self-efficacy. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 65 (1), 40–57.
De Haan, E., Grant, A.M., Burger, Y. and Eriksson, P-O., 2016. A large-scale study of executive and workplace coaching: The relative contributions of relationship, personality match, and self-efficacy. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 68 (3), 189–207.
Ellinger, A. D., Ellinger, A. E. and Keller, S. B., 2003. Supervisory coaching behavior, employee satisfaction, and warehouse employee performance: A dyadic perspective in the distribution industry. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 14 (4), 435–458.
Ely, K. and Zaccaro, S. J., 2011. Evaluating the effectiveness of coaching - A focus on stakeholders, criteria, and data collection methods. In G. Hernez-Broome and L. A. Boyce (Eds.), Advancing Executive Coaching: Setting the Course for Successful Leadership Coaching (pp. 319–349). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Ely, K., Boyce, L. A., Nelson, J. K., Zaccaro, S. J., Hernez-Broome, G. and Whyman, W., 2010. Evaluating leadership coaching: A review and integrated framework. The Leadership Quarterly, 21 (4), 585–599.
Feldman, D. C. and Lankau, M. J., 2005. Executive coaching: A review and agenda for future research. Journal of Management, 31 (6), 829–848.
Finn, F. A., Mason, C. M. and Bradley, L. M., 2007. Doing Well with Executive Coaching: Psychological and Behavioral Impacts. Academy of Management Conference, Philadelphia, PA. Available at http://eprints.qut.edu.au/10125/1/10125.pdf. [consulted July 2016]
Gan, G.C. and Chong, C. W., 2015. Coaching relationship in executive coaching: a Malaysian study. Journal of Management Development, 34 (4), 476–493.
Gessnitzer, S. and Kauffeld, S., 2015. The working alliance in coaching: why behavior is the key to success. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 51 (2), 177–197.
Giangreco, A., Carugati, A. and Sebastiano, A., 2010. Are we doing the right thing? Food for thought on training evaluation and its context. Personnel Review, 39 (2), 162–177.
Grant, A. M., 2013. The efficacy of coaching. In J. Passmore, D. Peterson and T. Freire (Eds.), The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of the Psychology of Coaching and Mentoring (pp. 15–37). Oxford: John Wiley and Sons.
Grover, S. and Furnham, A. 2016., Coaching as a developmental intervention in organizations: A systematic review of its effectiveness and the mechanisms underlying it. PLoS ONE, 11 (7), e0159137.
Gyllensten, K. and Palmer, S., 2006. Workplace stress: Can it be reduced by coaching. The Coaching Psychologist, 2 (1), 17–22.
Hagen, M. S., and Peterson, S. L., 2014. Coaching scales a review of the literature and comparative analysis. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 16 (2), 222–241.
Hall, D. T., Otazo, K. L. and Hollenbeck, G. P., 1999. Behind closed doors: What really happens in executive coaching. Organizational Dynamics, 27 (3), 39–52.
Holton, E. F., 1996. The flawed four level evaluation model. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 7 (1), 5–21.
Jones, G. and Spooner, K., 2006. Coaching high achievers. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 58 (1), 40-50.
Jones, R. J., Woods, S. A. and Guillaume, Y. R. F., 2016. The effectiveness of workplace coaching: A meta-analysis of learning and performance outcomes from coaching. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 89, 249–277.
Joo, B. K., 2005. Executive coaching: A conceptual framework from an integrative review of practice and research. Human Resource Development Review, 4 (4), 462–488.
Kilburg, R. R., 1997. Coaching and executive character: core problems and basic approaches. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 49 (4), 281-299.
Kilburg, R. R., 2001. Facilitating intervention adherence in executive coaching: A model and methods. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 53 (4), 251–267.
Kim, S., Egan, T. M. Kim, W. and Kim, J., 2013. The impact of managerial coaching behavior on employee work-related reactions. Journal of Business Psychology, 28 (3), 315–330.
Kirkpatrick, D. L., 1975. Evaluating Training Programs. Madison, WI: American Society for Training and Development.
Kombarakaran, F. A., Yang, J. A., Baker, M. N. and Fernandes, P. B., 2008. Executive coaching: it works!. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 60 (1), 78–90.
Kovacs, L. and Corrie, S., 2016. What can realist evaluation tell us about how coaching interventions work?. The Coaching Psychologist, 12 (2), 59-66.
Kraiger, K., Ford, J. K. and Salas, E., 1993. Application of cognitive, skill-based, and affective theories of learning outcomes to new methods of training evaluation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78 (2), 311–328.
Lambert, M. J. and Barley, D. E., 2001. Research summary on the therapeutic relationship and psychotherapy outcome. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 38 (4), 357–361.
Lewis-Duarte, M. and Bligh, M., 2012. Agents of ‘influence’: exploring the usage, timing, and outcomes of executive coaching tactics. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 33 (3), 255–281.
Lim, D. H. and Morris, M. L., 2006. Influence of trainee characteristics, instructional satisfaction, and organizational climate on perceived learning and training transfer. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 17 (1), 85–115.
Lopez, M.L., 2017. Do we need alliance factor definitions unique to coaching? Clients’ operational definitions of research-based definitions. International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring, 15 (1), 42–64.
Luthans, F. and Peterson, S. J., 2003. 360 degree feedback with systematic coaching: Empirical analysis suggests a winning combination, Human Resource Management, 42 (3), 243–256.
MacKie, D., 2014. The effectiveness of strength-based executive coaching in enhancing full range leadership development: A controlled study. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 66 (2), 118–137.
Mardia, K. V. (1970). Measures of multivariate skewness and kurtosis with applications. Biometrika, 57(3), 519-530.
Noe, R. A. and Wilk, S. L., 1993. Investigation of the Factors that Influence Employees Participation in Development Activities. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78 (2), 291–302.
Olivero, G., Bane, K. D. and Kopelman, R. E., 1997. Executive coaching as a transfer of training tool: Effects on productivity in a public agency. Public Personnel Management, 26 (4), 461–469.
Osatuke, K., Yanovsky, B., and Ramsel, D., 2017. Executive coaching: New framework for evaluation. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 69 (3), 172-186.
Passmore, J. and Fillery-Travis, A., 2011. A critical review of executive coaching research: a decade of progress and what’s to come. Coaching: An International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice, 4 (2), 70–88.
Pershing, J. A. and Pershing, J. L., 2001. Ineffective reaction evaluation. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 12 (1), 73–90.
Rekalde, I., Landeta, J. and Albizu, E., 2015. Determining factors in the effectiveness of executive coaching as a management development tool. Management Decision, 53 (8), 1677–1697.
Rekalde, I., Landeta, J., Albizu, E. and Fernández-Ferrín, P., 2017. Is executive coaching more effective than other management training and development methods?. Management Decision, 55 (10), 2149-2162.
Rhoades, L. and Eisenberger, R., 2002. Perceived organizational support: A review of the literature. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87 (4), 698–714.
Russ-Eft, D. F., Dickinson, P. D. and Levine, R., 2005. Instructor quality affecting emergency medical technician (EMT) preparedness: a LEADS project. International Journal of Training and Development, 9 (4), 256–70.
Sitzmann, T., Brown, K. G., Casper, W. J., Ely, K. and Zimmerman, R. D., 2008. A review and meta-analysis of the nomological network of trainee reactions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93 (2), 280–95.
Smither, J. W., London, M., Flautt, R., Vargas, Y. and Kucine, I., 2003. Can working with an executive coach improve multi-source feedback ratings over time? A quasi-experimental field study. Personnel Psychology, 56 (1), 23–44.
Stajkovic, A. D. and Luthans, F., 1997. A meta-analysis of the effects of organizational behavior modification on task performance, 1975–1995. Academy of Management Journal, 40 (5), 1122–1149.
Thach, E. 2002., The impact of executive coaching and 360 feedback on leadership effectiveness. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 23 (4), 205–214.
Theeboom, T., Beersma, B. and Van Viansen, A. E. M., 2014. Does coaching work? A meta-analysis on the effects of coaching on individual level outcomes in an organizational context. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 9 (1), 1–18.
Tracey, J. B., Hinkin, T. R., Tannenbaum, S. and Mathieu, J. E., 2001. The influence of individual characteristics and the work environment on varying levels of training outcomes. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 12 (1), 5–23.
Tsai, P. C. F., Yen, Y. F., Huang, L. C. and Huang, I. C., 2007. A study on motivating employees learning commitment in the post-downsizing era: Job satisfaction perspective. Journal of World Business, 42 (2), 157–169.
Wasylyshyn, K. M., 2003. Executive coaching: An outcome study. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 55 (2), 94–106.
Wentzel, J, 2012. Modelling financial services adoption through an intermediary in South Africa: TAM and SEM approach. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Pretoria.
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