"A wise woman and competent to govern public affairs": Notes on the representation of Pythodoris in Strabo’s Geography (12.3.29 C 556)
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Published
09-03-2026
Francesco Carriere
Abstract
This article examines the figure of Pythodoris, queen of Pontus, through the lens of Strabo’s Geography (12.3.29 C 556), placing her within the broader framework of dynastic alliances and imperial strategies implemented by Rome between the 1st century BCE and the 1st century CE. By comparing Strabo’s account with additional literary, epigraphic, and numismatic evidence, the study highlights Pythodoris’s active role in ensuring political stability across Anatolia and the Black Sea region during a time of tension between local dynasties and Roman authority. The article emphasizes how Pythodoris effectively navigated the interplay between local power and imperial control by pursuing a calculated dynastic policy. Through strategic marriages of her children and grandchildren, she extended Roman influence into key areas such as Thrace and the Cimmerian Bosporus. Strabo’s praise of her as “a wise woman capable of administering public affairs” (γυνὴ σώφρων καὶ δυνατὴ προΐστασθαι πραγμάτων) reflects his recognition of the political relevance of female leadership in maintaining regional order. Pythodoris thus stands out as a compelling example of female authority and diplomatic agency in the political history of the Roman East.
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References
APR = Coşkun, A. (ed.), Amici Populi Romani, Prosopographie der auswärtigen Freunde Roms online, 2004- http://www.altaycoskun.com/apr
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Biffi, N., 2010, Scampoli di Mithridatika nella Geografia di Strabone, Quaderni 51, Bari: Edizioni Dal Sud.
Blanco Pérez, A. B., 2018, «Mên Askaenos and the Native Cults of Antioch by Pisidia», in: M.-P. de Hoz, J. P. Sánchez Hernández, and C. Molina Valer (eds.), Between Tarhuntas and Zeus Polieus. Cultural Crossroads in the Temples and Cults of Graeco-Roman Anatolia, Leuven-Paris-Bristol: Peeters, 119-150.
Boffo, L., 1989, «Grecità di frontiera: Chersonasos Taurica e i signori del Ponto Eusino (SIG3 709), Parte II», Athenaeum 77, 211-259.
Bowersock, G., 2013, «Strabo and the Memory of Mithridates Eupator», in: A. Ivantchik (ed.), Monumentum Gregorianum. Sbornik Nauchnykh Statei Pamyati Akademika Grigoriya Maksimovicha Bongard-Levina (Сборник Научных Статей Памяти Академика Григория Максимовича Бонгард-Левина), Moskva: Vostochnaya Literatura, 378-387.
Braund, D., 2005, «Polemo, Pythodoris and Strabo. Friends of Rome in the Black Sea Region», in A. Coşkun (ed.), Roms auswärtige Freunde in der späten Republik und im frühen Prinzipat, GFA Beihefte 19, Göttingen: Edition Ruprecht, 253-270.
Broughton, T. R. S., 1952, The Magistrates of the Roman Republic, vol. 2, New York: American Philological Association 1952.
Campanile, D., 2010, «Pitodoride e la sua famiglia», SCO 56, 57-85.
Campanile, D., 2012, «Cheremone, Pitodoro, Pitodoride», in: M. Cassia, C. Giufrida, C. Molè, A. Pinzone (eds.), Pignora Amicitiae. Scritti di storia antica e di storiografia offerti a Mario Mazza, Storia e politica 99, Acireale-Roma: Bonanno Editore, 231-258.
Carlsen, J., 2008, «Cn. Domitius Calvinus : a Noble Caesarian», Latomus 67 (1), 72-81.
Carriere, F., 2024-2025 «“An elusive entity”: alcune riflessioni sull’Isaurikè di Strabone (XII, 6, 1-5 C 568-569)», GeogrAnt 33, 95-113.
Cenerini, F., 2002, La donna romana, Bologna: il Mulino.
Cenerini, F., 2024, Messalina. Leggenda e storia di una donna pericolosa, Roma-Bari: Laterza.
Chaumont, M. L., 1984, «L’expédition de Pompée le Grand en Arménie et au Caucase (66–65 av. J.-C.)», Quaderni Catanesi 6, 17-94.
Chaumont, M.-L., 1976, «L’Arménie entre Rome et l’Iran. I: de l’avènement d’Auguste à l’avènement de Dioclétien», ANRW 2. 9 (1), 71-194.
Cojocaru, V., 2014, «Once more about Antonia Tryphaena», Journal of Ancient History and Archaeology, 1 (2), 3-8.
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Dana, M., 2021, «The Bosporan Kings and the Greek Features of Their Culture in the Black Sea and the Mediterranean», in A. Coşkun (ed.), with the assistance of J. Porucznik and G. Payen, Ethnic Constructs, Royal Dynasties and Historical Geography Around the Black Sea Littoral, Geographica Historica 43, Stuttgart, 141-160.
Dessau, H., 1913, «De regina Pythodoride et de Pythodoride iuniore», Ephemeris Epigraphica 9/4, 691-696.
Dessau, H., 1930, Geschichte der romischen Kaiserzeit, II.2, Berlin: Weidmann.
Engels, J., 2005, «Ἄνδρες ἔνδοξοι or ‘men of high reputation’ in Strabo’s Geography», in: D. Dueck, H. Lindsay, S. Pothecary (eds.) Strabo’s Cultural Geography: The Making of a ‘Kolossourgia’, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 120-129.
Ferrary, J.-L., 1988, Philhellénisme et impérialisme. Aspects idéologiques de la conquête romaine du monde hellénistique, de la seconde guerre de Macédoine à la guerre contre Mithridate, Rome: BEFAR 271.
Fezzi, L., 2019, Pompeo. Conquistatore del mondo, difensore della res publica, eroe tragico, Roma: Salerno.
Gajdukevič, V. F., 1971, Das Bosporanische Reich, Berlin: Akademie Verlag.
García González, J., 2023, «P. Calpunius Lanarius, a New Name on the Sullan Proscription lists», CQ 72 (2), 587-594.
Gehrke, H. J., 2022, «Strabo and the Taman Peninsula: Some observations on the historical geography of the Cimmerian Bosporus», in Th. Castelli, Chr. Müller (eds.), De Mithridate VI à Arrien de Nicomédie : changements et continuités dans le bassin de la mer Noire entre le Ier s. a. C. et le Ier s. p. C. Actes du colloque de Paris Nanterre, 2 et 3 mars 2018, Scripta Antiqua 166, Bordeaux: Ausonius Éditions, 219-230.
Gomme, A. W., 1945, A Historical Commentary on Thucidides, Vol. I, Oxford: The Clarendon Press.
Gruen, E. S., 1984, The Hellenistic World and the Coming of Rome, I-II, Berkeley-Los Angeles-London: University of California Press.
Heinen, H., 2001, «Die mithridatische Tradition der bosporanischen Könige – ein mißverstandener Befund», in: K. Geus, K. Zimmermann (eds.), Punica-Libyca-Ptolemaica. Festschrift für Werner Huß zum 65. Geburtstag dargebracht von Schülern, Freunden und Kollegen, Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 104 – Studia Phoenicia 16, Löwen-Paris-Sterling: Peeters, 355-370.
Lightman, M., & B. Lightman, 2000, Biographical Dictionary of Greek and Roman Women: Notable Women from Sappho to Helena, NewYork: Facts On File.
Lozanov, I., 2015, «Roman Thrace», in J. Valeva, E. Nankov, and D. Graninger (eds.), A Companion to Ancient Thrace, Oxford: Wiley Blackwell, 75-90.
Marasco, G., 1987, Aspetti della politica di Marco Antonio in Oriente, Firenze: Università degli Studi di Firenze.
Mitchell, St., 2002, «In Search of the Pontic Community in Antiquity», in A. Bowman, H. M. Cotton, M. Goodman, S. Price (eds.), Representations of Empire. Rome and the Mediterranean World, Proceedings of the British Academy (London, 2002; online edn, British Academy Scholarship Online, 31 Jan. 2013), Oxford: Oxford Academic, 34-64.
Mommsen, Th., 1872, «De titulo reginae Pythodoridis Smyrnaeo», Ephemeris Epigraphica 1, 270-276.
Muccioli, F., 2013, Gli epiteti ufficiali dei re ellenistici, Historia Einzelschriften 124, Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag.
Münzer, F., 1921, «Scribonius, n. 3», RE 2. A 1, coll. 859-860.
Oniga, R. (a cura di), 2003, Tacito. Annali, Milano: Giulio Einaudi Editore.
Oniga, R. (a cura di), 2024, Tacito, Annali, Milano: Einaudi.
Östenberg, I., 2009, Staging the World. Spoils, Captives, and Representations in the Roman Triumphal Procession, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Pais, E., 1908, Ancient Italy. Historical and geographical investigations in Central Italy, Magna Graecia, Sicily, and Sardinia, Chicago-London: University of Chicago Press.
Parker, V., 2018, «Deiotarus: zur Karriere Eines Römischen Klientelkönigs», Electrum 25, 187-208.
Pothecary, S., 1997, «The Expression “Our Times” in Strabo”s Geography», CPh 92 (3), 235-246.
Pothecary, S., 2017, «Signposts and sub-divisions. Hidden pointers in Strabo’s narrative», in: D. Dueck (ed.), The Routledge Companion to Strabo, London-New York: Routledge, 195-206.
Primo, A., 2010, «The client kingdom of Pontus between Mithridatism and philoromanism», in: T. Kaizer, M. Facella (eds.), Kingdoms and Principalities in the Roman Near East, Oriens et Occidens 19, Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 159-180.
Radt, S., 2004, Strabons Geographika. Band 3. Buch IX-XIII: Text und Übersetzung, Göttingen: Vandenhoec & Ruprecht.
Raggi, A., 2008, «Amici populi Romani», MediterrAnt 11 (1-2), 97-113.
Raggi, A., 2010, «The first Roman citizens among Eastern dynasts and kings», in: T. Kaizer, M. Facella (eds.), Kingdoms and Principalities in the Roman Near East, Oriens et Occidens 19, Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 81-98.
Roddaz, J. M., 1988, «Lucius Antonius», Historia 37, 317-346.
Rohr Vio, F., 2009, Publio Ventidio Basso Fautor Caesaris fra storia e memoria, Centro ricerche e documentazione sull’età classica Monografie 31, Roma: «L’ Erma» di Bretschneider.
Saprykin, S. 2019, «Mithridates of Pergamum – a Known and Unknown Ruler», Vestnik Drevnei Istorii 79.2, 280-306.
Saprykin, S. Ju, & N. F. Fedoseev, 2009, «Epigraphica Pontica II. New Inscription of Pythodoris from Panticapaeum», Vestnik Drevnei Istorii 270.3, 138-147.
Saprykin, S. Ju., 2005, «Thrace and the Bosporus under the Early Roman Emperors», in: D. Braund (ed.), Scythians and Greeks: Cultural Interaction in Scythia, Athens and the early Roman Empire (Sixth Century BC – First Century AD), Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 167-175.
Schwentzel, C.-G., 2025, «Polémon Ier et Hérode, Polémon II et Agrippa Ier», in C. Barat (ed.), Le nord de l’Anatolie. Rennes: Presses universitaires de Rennes.
Sørensen, L. S. 2016, Between kingdom and koinon. Neapolis/Neoklaudiopolis and the Pontic cities, Geographica Historica 33, Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag.
Sullivan, R. D., 1979, «Thrace in the Eastern Dynastic Network», Temporini, H. (ed.), Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt, 2. 7 (1), Berlin: De Gruyter, 186-211.
Sullivan, R. D., 1980, «Dynasts in Pontus», ANRW 2. 7 (2), 913-930.
Sullivan, R. D., 1990, Near Eastern Royalty and Rome. 100-30 BC, Phoenix Supplement 34, Toronto-Buffalo-London: University of Toronto Press.
Syme, R., 1995, Anatolica: Studies in Strabo. Ed. by Birley, A. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Tatum, W. J., 2024, A Noble Ruin. Mark Antony, Civil War, and the Collapse of the Roman Republic, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Thonemann, P. J., 2004, «Polemo, son of Polemo (Dio, 59.12.2)», EA 37, 144-150.
Traina, G. 2003, Marco Antonio, Roma-Bari: Laterza.
Traina, G., 2018, «Central Asia in the Late Roman Mental Map, Second to Sixth Centuries», in: N. Di Cosmo, M. Maas (eds.), Empires and Exchanges in Eurasian Late Antiquity. Rome, China, Iran, and the Steppe, ca. 250-700, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 123-132.
Traina, G., 2021, «Ancient Armenia: Evidence and Models», Electrum 28, 13-20.
Traina, G., 2023, La prima guerra mondiale della storia. Dall’assassinio di Cesare al suicidio di Antonio e Cleopatra (44-30 a.C.), Roma-Bari: Laterza.
van Ooteghem, J., 1954, Pompée le grand, bâtisseur d’empire, Bruxelles: Académie Royale de Belgique.
van Wijlick, H. A. M, 2021, Rome and the Near Eastern Kingdoms and Principalities, 44-31 BC: A Study of Political Relations during Civil War, Impact of Empire 38, Leiden-Boston: Brill.
Vitale, M., 2012, Eparchie und Koinon in Kleinasien von der ausgehenden Republik bis ins 3.
Wilker, J., 2022, «Chapter 7. Sociae et amicae populi Romani: Women and the Institution of Client Kingship», in H. Cornwell, G. Woolf, Gendering Roman Imperialism, Impact of Empire 43, Leiden: Brill, 165-184.
Barat, C., 2010, «La ville de Sinope, réflexions historiques et archéologiques», Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 16 (12), 25-64, 533-536.
Biffi, N., 2010, Scampoli di Mithridatika nella Geografia di Strabone, Quaderni 51, Bari: Edizioni Dal Sud.
Blanco Pérez, A. B., 2018, «Mên Askaenos and the Native Cults of Antioch by Pisidia», in: M.-P. de Hoz, J. P. Sánchez Hernández, and C. Molina Valer (eds.), Between Tarhuntas and Zeus Polieus. Cultural Crossroads in the Temples and Cults of Graeco-Roman Anatolia, Leuven-Paris-Bristol: Peeters, 119-150.
Boffo, L., 1989, «Grecità di frontiera: Chersonasos Taurica e i signori del Ponto Eusino (SIG3 709), Parte II», Athenaeum 77, 211-259.
Bowersock, G., 2013, «Strabo and the Memory of Mithridates Eupator», in: A. Ivantchik (ed.), Monumentum Gregorianum. Sbornik Nauchnykh Statei Pamyati Akademika Grigoriya Maksimovicha Bongard-Levina (Сборник Научных Статей Памяти Академика Григория Максимовича Бонгард-Левина), Moskva: Vostochnaya Literatura, 378-387.
Braund, D., 2005, «Polemo, Pythodoris and Strabo. Friends of Rome in the Black Sea Region», in A. Coşkun (ed.), Roms auswärtige Freunde in der späten Republik und im frühen Prinzipat, GFA Beihefte 19, Göttingen: Edition Ruprecht, 253-270.
Broughton, T. R. S., 1952, The Magistrates of the Roman Republic, vol. 2, New York: American Philological Association 1952.
Campanile, D., 2010, «Pitodoride e la sua famiglia», SCO 56, 57-85.
Campanile, D., 2012, «Cheremone, Pitodoro, Pitodoride», in: M. Cassia, C. Giufrida, C. Molè, A. Pinzone (eds.), Pignora Amicitiae. Scritti di storia antica e di storiografia offerti a Mario Mazza, Storia e politica 99, Acireale-Roma: Bonanno Editore, 231-258.
Carlsen, J., 2008, «Cn. Domitius Calvinus : a Noble Caesarian», Latomus 67 (1), 72-81.
Carriere, F., 2024-2025 «“An elusive entity”: alcune riflessioni sull’Isaurikè di Strabone (XII, 6, 1-5 C 568-569)», GeogrAnt 33, 95-113.
Cenerini, F., 2002, La donna romana, Bologna: il Mulino.
Cenerini, F., 2024, Messalina. Leggenda e storia di una donna pericolosa, Roma-Bari: Laterza.
Chaumont, M. L., 1984, «L’expédition de Pompée le Grand en Arménie et au Caucase (66–65 av. J.-C.)», Quaderni Catanesi 6, 17-94.
Chaumont, M.-L., 1976, «L’Arménie entre Rome et l’Iran. I: de l’avènement d’Auguste à l’avènement de Dioclétien», ANRW 2. 9 (1), 71-194.
Cojocaru, V., 2014, «Once more about Antonia Tryphaena», Journal of Ancient History and Archaeology, 1 (2), 3-8.
Coles, A. J., 2020, Roman Colonies in Republic and Empire, Leiden-Boston: Brill.
Coşkun, A., 2021a, «Deiotaros Philorhomaios, Pontos und Kolchis», in: A. Coşkun (ed.), with the assistance of J. Porucznik and G. Payen, Ethnic Constructs, Royal Dynasties and Historical Geography Around the Black Sea Littoral, Geographica Historica 43, Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 233-281.
Coşkun, A., 2021b, «Pompeius und die ‚Elf Städte’ der Provinz Pontus», in: A. Coşkun (ed.), with the assistance of J. Porucznik and G. Payen, Ethnic Constructs, Royal Dynasties and Historical Geography Around the Black Sea Littoral, Geographica Historica 43, Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 265-286.
Coşkun, A., 2021c «Von Amaseia nach Sinope: die Expansion des Pontischen Reiches unter Pharnakes II», Ricerche Ellenistiche 2, 57-5.
Dana, M., 2021, «The Bosporan Kings and the Greek Features of Their Culture in the Black Sea and the Mediterranean», in A. Coşkun (ed.), with the assistance of J. Porucznik and G. Payen, Ethnic Constructs, Royal Dynasties and Historical Geography Around the Black Sea Littoral, Geographica Historica 43, Stuttgart, 141-160.
Dessau, H., 1913, «De regina Pythodoride et de Pythodoride iuniore», Ephemeris Epigraphica 9/4, 691-696.
Dessau, H., 1930, Geschichte der romischen Kaiserzeit, II.2, Berlin: Weidmann.
Engels, J., 2005, «Ἄνδρες ἔνδοξοι or ‘men of high reputation’ in Strabo’s Geography», in: D. Dueck, H. Lindsay, S. Pothecary (eds.) Strabo’s Cultural Geography: The Making of a ‘Kolossourgia’, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 120-129.
Ferrary, J.-L., 1988, Philhellénisme et impérialisme. Aspects idéologiques de la conquête romaine du monde hellénistique, de la seconde guerre de Macédoine à la guerre contre Mithridate, Rome: BEFAR 271.
Fezzi, L., 2019, Pompeo. Conquistatore del mondo, difensore della res publica, eroe tragico, Roma: Salerno.
Gajdukevič, V. F., 1971, Das Bosporanische Reich, Berlin: Akademie Verlag.
García González, J., 2023, «P. Calpunius Lanarius, a New Name on the Sullan Proscription lists», CQ 72 (2), 587-594.
Gehrke, H. J., 2022, «Strabo and the Taman Peninsula: Some observations on the historical geography of the Cimmerian Bosporus», in Th. Castelli, Chr. Müller (eds.), De Mithridate VI à Arrien de Nicomédie : changements et continuités dans le bassin de la mer Noire entre le Ier s. a. C. et le Ier s. p. C. Actes du colloque de Paris Nanterre, 2 et 3 mars 2018, Scripta Antiqua 166, Bordeaux: Ausonius Éditions, 219-230.
Gomme, A. W., 1945, A Historical Commentary on Thucidides, Vol. I, Oxford: The Clarendon Press.
Gruen, E. S., 1984, The Hellenistic World and the Coming of Rome, I-II, Berkeley-Los Angeles-London: University of California Press.
Heinen, H., 2001, «Die mithridatische Tradition der bosporanischen Könige – ein mißverstandener Befund», in: K. Geus, K. Zimmermann (eds.), Punica-Libyca-Ptolemaica. Festschrift für Werner Huß zum 65. Geburtstag dargebracht von Schülern, Freunden und Kollegen, Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 104 – Studia Phoenicia 16, Löwen-Paris-Sterling: Peeters, 355-370.
Lightman, M., & B. Lightman, 2000, Biographical Dictionary of Greek and Roman Women: Notable Women from Sappho to Helena, NewYork: Facts On File.
Lozanov, I., 2015, «Roman Thrace», in J. Valeva, E. Nankov, and D. Graninger (eds.), A Companion to Ancient Thrace, Oxford: Wiley Blackwell, 75-90.
Marasco, G., 1987, Aspetti della politica di Marco Antonio in Oriente, Firenze: Università degli Studi di Firenze.
Mitchell, St., 2002, «In Search of the Pontic Community in Antiquity», in A. Bowman, H. M. Cotton, M. Goodman, S. Price (eds.), Representations of Empire. Rome and the Mediterranean World, Proceedings of the British Academy (London, 2002; online edn, British Academy Scholarship Online, 31 Jan. 2013), Oxford: Oxford Academic, 34-64.
Mommsen, Th., 1872, «De titulo reginae Pythodoridis Smyrnaeo», Ephemeris Epigraphica 1, 270-276.
Muccioli, F., 2013, Gli epiteti ufficiali dei re ellenistici, Historia Einzelschriften 124, Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag.
Münzer, F., 1921, «Scribonius, n. 3», RE 2. A 1, coll. 859-860.
Oniga, R. (a cura di), 2003, Tacito. Annali, Milano: Giulio Einaudi Editore.
Oniga, R. (a cura di), 2024, Tacito, Annali, Milano: Einaudi.
Östenberg, I., 2009, Staging the World. Spoils, Captives, and Representations in the Roman Triumphal Procession, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Pais, E., 1908, Ancient Italy. Historical and geographical investigations in Central Italy, Magna Graecia, Sicily, and Sardinia, Chicago-London: University of Chicago Press.
Parker, V., 2018, «Deiotarus: zur Karriere Eines Römischen Klientelkönigs», Electrum 25, 187-208.
Pothecary, S., 1997, «The Expression “Our Times” in Strabo”s Geography», CPh 92 (3), 235-246.
Pothecary, S., 2017, «Signposts and sub-divisions. Hidden pointers in Strabo’s narrative», in: D. Dueck (ed.), The Routledge Companion to Strabo, London-New York: Routledge, 195-206.
Primo, A., 2010, «The client kingdom of Pontus between Mithridatism and philoromanism», in: T. Kaizer, M. Facella (eds.), Kingdoms and Principalities in the Roman Near East, Oriens et Occidens 19, Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 159-180.
Radt, S., 2004, Strabons Geographika. Band 3. Buch IX-XIII: Text und Übersetzung, Göttingen: Vandenhoec & Ruprecht.
Raggi, A., 2008, «Amici populi Romani», MediterrAnt 11 (1-2), 97-113.
Raggi, A., 2010, «The first Roman citizens among Eastern dynasts and kings», in: T. Kaizer, M. Facella (eds.), Kingdoms and Principalities in the Roman Near East, Oriens et Occidens 19, Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 81-98.
Roddaz, J. M., 1988, «Lucius Antonius», Historia 37, 317-346.
Rohr Vio, F., 2009, Publio Ventidio Basso Fautor Caesaris fra storia e memoria, Centro ricerche e documentazione sull’età classica Monografie 31, Roma: «L’ Erma» di Bretschneider.
Saprykin, S. 2019, «Mithridates of Pergamum – a Known and Unknown Ruler», Vestnik Drevnei Istorii 79.2, 280-306.
Saprykin, S. Ju, & N. F. Fedoseev, 2009, «Epigraphica Pontica II. New Inscription of Pythodoris from Panticapaeum», Vestnik Drevnei Istorii 270.3, 138-147.
Saprykin, S. Ju., 2005, «Thrace and the Bosporus under the Early Roman Emperors», in: D. Braund (ed.), Scythians and Greeks: Cultural Interaction in Scythia, Athens and the early Roman Empire (Sixth Century BC – First Century AD), Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 167-175.
Schwentzel, C.-G., 2025, «Polémon Ier et Hérode, Polémon II et Agrippa Ier», in C. Barat (ed.), Le nord de l’Anatolie. Rennes: Presses universitaires de Rennes.
Sørensen, L. S. 2016, Between kingdom and koinon. Neapolis/Neoklaudiopolis and the Pontic cities, Geographica Historica 33, Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag.
Sullivan, R. D., 1979, «Thrace in the Eastern Dynastic Network», Temporini, H. (ed.), Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt, 2. 7 (1), Berlin: De Gruyter, 186-211.
Sullivan, R. D., 1980, «Dynasts in Pontus», ANRW 2. 7 (2), 913-930.
Sullivan, R. D., 1990, Near Eastern Royalty and Rome. 100-30 BC, Phoenix Supplement 34, Toronto-Buffalo-London: University of Toronto Press.
Syme, R., 1995, Anatolica: Studies in Strabo. Ed. by Birley, A. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Tatum, W. J., 2024, A Noble Ruin. Mark Antony, Civil War, and the Collapse of the Roman Republic, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Thonemann, P. J., 2004, «Polemo, son of Polemo (Dio, 59.12.2)», EA 37, 144-150.
Traina, G. 2003, Marco Antonio, Roma-Bari: Laterza.
Traina, G., 2018, «Central Asia in the Late Roman Mental Map, Second to Sixth Centuries», in: N. Di Cosmo, M. Maas (eds.), Empires and Exchanges in Eurasian Late Antiquity. Rome, China, Iran, and the Steppe, ca. 250-700, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 123-132.
Traina, G., 2021, «Ancient Armenia: Evidence and Models», Electrum 28, 13-20.
Traina, G., 2023, La prima guerra mondiale della storia. Dall’assassinio di Cesare al suicidio di Antonio e Cleopatra (44-30 a.C.), Roma-Bari: Laterza.
van Ooteghem, J., 1954, Pompée le grand, bâtisseur d’empire, Bruxelles: Académie Royale de Belgique.
van Wijlick, H. A. M, 2021, Rome and the Near Eastern Kingdoms and Principalities, 44-31 BC: A Study of Political Relations during Civil War, Impact of Empire 38, Leiden-Boston: Brill.
Vitale, M., 2012, Eparchie und Koinon in Kleinasien von der ausgehenden Republik bis ins 3.
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Section
La amicitia femenina: utilidad, simpatía y empatía
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