Sex-gender diversity in demography: a narrative of inertias, gaps, and ruptures
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Published
14-10-2025
Celia Fernández-Carro
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9065-3528
Abstract
Demography is a discipline within the Social Sciences that seeks excellence in the design and application of quantitative methods. Paradoxically, demography have not yet taken part in the methodological debate about the measurement of the non-binary sexual and gender identities. The aim of this work is to reflect on the capacity and willingness of demography to engage in quantitative social research on sexual and gender diversity, based on the conceptualization that population studies make of sex, gender, and sexualities as analytical categories, and its influence on the data collection procedures. The paper explores the main challenges regarding sexual and gender diversity, mostly related to the lack of questioning of its epistemological basis, while also pointing out some potentialities
for the future. A critical view to the participation of demography in social research
on sexual and gender diversity is crucial due to its connection to quantitative sociology,
to which it consistently provides a sort of technical methods. Additionally, the knowledge
generated is a key element for the visibility and recognition of LGTBIQ+ people.
How to Cite
Fernández-Carro, C. (2025). Sex-gender diversity in demography: a narrative of inertias, gaps, and ruptures. Papeles De Identidad, 2025(2), papel 325. https://doi.org/10.1387/pceic.25296
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Keywords
quantitative methods, feminist demography, sex-gender diversity, LGTBIQ population, SOGI data
References
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Badgett, M. L., Baker, K. E., Conron, K. J., Gates, G. J., Gill, A., Greytak, E., y Herman, J. L. (2014). Best practices for asking questions to identify transgender and other gender minority respondents on population-based surveys (GenIUSS). The GenIUSS Group, UCLA Williams Institute.
Baumle, A. K., Compton, D. R., y Poston, D. L. Jr. (2009). Same-sex partners: The social demography of sexual orientation. State University of New York Press.
Baumle, A.K., y Dreon, B. (2019). The Demography of Sexuality. En D. L. Poston (Ed.), Handbook of Population (pp. 279-288). Springer.
Baumle, A. K. (2022). Demography of Transgender, Nonbinary and Gender Minority Populations. Springer International Publishing.
Baumle, A. K., y Nordmarken, S. (2022). Introduction to the Demography of Transgender, Nonbinary, and Gender Minority Populations. En A. Baumle (Ed.), Demography of Transgender, Nonbinary and Gender Minority Populations (pp. 1-12). Springer International Publishing.
Biggs, M. (2023). Gender Identity in the 2021 Census of England and Wales: How a Flawed Question Created Spurious Data. Sociology, 58(6), 1305-1323.
Boertien, D., y Vignoli, D. (2019). Legalizing same-sex marriage matters for the subjective well-being of individuals in same-sex unions. Demography, 56(6), 2109-2121.
Browne, K. (2008). Selling my queer soul or queerying quantitative research? Sociological Research Online, 13(1), 200-214.
Butler, J. (2007). El género en disputa: el feminismo y la subversión de la identidad. Paidós
Caldwell, J. C. (1996). Demography and social science. Population Studies, 50(3), 305-333.
Canales, A. I. (2021). Demografía de la desigualdad. Nueva sociedad, 293, 154-166.
Cochran, S. D., Björkenstam, C., y Mays, V. M. (2016). Sexual orientation and all-cause mortality among US adults aged 18 to 59 years, 2001-2011. American Journal of Public Health, 106(5), 918-920.
Compton, D. L. R., y Baumle, A. K. (2018). Demographics of gay and lesbian partnerships and families. En N. E. Riley y J. Brunson (Eds.), International Handbook on Gender and Demographic Processes (pp. 267-285). Springer.
Cortina, C. (2016). Demographics of same-sex couples in Spain. Revista Española de Investigaciones Sociológicas (REIS), 153, 3-22.
Davidian, A. (2011). Beyond the locker room: Changing narratives on early surgery for intersex children. Wisconsin Journal of Law, Gender, and Society, 26, 1-26.
Department of Health of Australia (2012). National LGBTI Ageing and Aged Care Strategy. Australian Government.
Durso, L. E., y Gates, G. J. (2013). Best practices: Collecting and analyzing data on sexual minorities. En A. Baumle (Eds.), International Handbook on the Demography of Sexuality (pp. 21-42). Springer Netherlands.
Escobedo Rivera, J. (2007). El dato en la investigación demográfica: una visión epistemológica. Papeles de Población, 13(54), 9-21.
European Commission (2023). Guidance note on the collection and use for data LGTBIQ equality. Publications Office of the European Union.
Fausto-Sterling, A. (2000). Sexing the body: Gender politics and the construction of sexuality. Basic Book.
Federici, N., Caselli, G., Egidi, V., y Fong, M. (1985). The Status of Women, Population and Development. IUSSP Newsletter, 23-24, 77-98.
Fernández-Carro, C., Grande-Martín, R., Miret, P., y Seiz, M. (2022). Generaciones y curso(s) de vida: una mirada longitudinal a los retos demográficos contemporáneos. RES. Revista Española de Sociología, 31(2), 1-10.
Fischer M., Kroh M., De Vries L., Kasprowski D., Kühne S., Richter D., y Zindel, Z. (2022). Sexual and Gender Minority (SGM) research meets household panel surveys: research potentials of the German socio-economic panel and its boost sample of sgm households. European Sociological Review, 38(2), 321-335.
Fuchs, S., y Ward, S. (1994). What is deconstruction, and where and when does it take place? Making facts in science, building cases in law. American Sociological Review, 59(4), 481-500.
Gates, G. J. (2011). How many people are lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender? Williams Institute, UCLA School of Law.
Gieseking, J. J. (2018). Size matters to lesbians, too: Queer feminist interventions into the scale of big data. The Professional Geographer, 70(1), 150-156.
Guyan, K. (2022). Constructing a queer population? Asking about sexual orientation in Scotland’s 2022 census. Journal of Gender Studies, 31(6), 782-792.
Hammarström, A., y Annandale, E. (2012). A conceptual muddle: an empirical analysis of the use of ‘sex’ and ‘gender’ in ‘gender-specific medicine journals. PLoS One, 7(4), e34193.
Henehan, D., Rothblum, E. D., Solomon, S. E., y Balsam, K. F. (2008). Social and demographic characteristics of gay, lesbian, and heterosexual adults with and without children. Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 3(2-3), 35-79.
Horton, H. D. (1999). Critical demography: The paradigm of the future? Sociological Forum, 14(3), 363-367.
Hubert, M., Bajos, N., y Sandfort, T. (Eds.) (1998). Sexual behaviour and HIV/AIDS in Europe: Comparisons of national surveys. Routledge.
Hughes, C., y Cohen, R. L. (Eds.) (2013). Feminism counts: quantitative methods and researching gender. Routledge.
Janssens, A. (2007). ‘Were women present at the demographic transition?’ A question revisited. The History of the Family, 12(1), 43-49.
Lagos, D., y Compton, D. L. (2021). Evaluating the use of a two-step gender identity measure in the 2018 General Social Survey. Demography, 58(2), 763-772.
Le Bras, H. (2000). L’invention des populations: biologie, idéologie et politique. Odile Jacob.
Lombardi, E., y Banik, S. (2016). The utility of the two-step gender measure within trans and cis populations. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 13(3), 288-296.
McDaniel, S. A. (1996). Toward a synthesis of feminist and demographic perspectives on fertility. The Sociological Quarterly, 37(1), 83-104.
Mackinnon, A. (1995). Were women present at the demographic transition? Questions from a feminist historian to historical demographers. Gender & History, 7(2), 222-240.
Mason, K. O. (1986). The Status of Women: Conceptual and Methodological Issues in Demographic Studies. Sociological Forum, 1(2), 284-300.
Meerwijk, E. L., y Sevelius, J. M. (2017). Transgender Population Size in the United States: A Meta-Regression of Population-Based Probability Samples. American Journal of Public Health, 107(2), 1-8.
Nicholson, L. J. (1999). Interpreting “Gender”. En The Play of Reason: From the Modern to the Postmodern (pp. 53-76). Cornell University Press.
Office for National Statistics (2023). Gender identity, England, and Wales: Census 2021. Recuperado de: https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/culturalidentity/genderidentit y/bulletins/genderidentityenglandandwales/census2021.
ONU (2023). Diccionario demográfico multilingüe. División de Población, ONU.
Ortega, A. A. C. (2023). Toward critical demography 2.0. Human Geography, 16(3), 343-354.
Patterson, G. (2019). Queering and transing quantitative research. En W. P. Banks, M. B. Cox y C. Dadas (Eds.), Re/orienting writing studies: Queer methods, queer projects (pp. 54-74). Utah State University Press.
Petit, V. (2013). Counting populations, understanding societies: Towards an interpretative demography (Vol. 1). Springer Science & Business Media.
Presser, H. B. (1997). Demography, feminism, and the science-policy nexus. Population and Development Review, 23(2), 295-331.
Randall, S., y Koppenhaver, T. (2004). Qualitative data in demography: The sound of silence and other problems. Demographic Research, 11, 57-94.
Reisner, S. L., Conron, K. J., Tardiff, L. A., Jarvi, S., Gordon, A. R., y Austin, S. B. (2014). Using a two-step method to measure transgender identity in Latin America/the Caribbean, Portugal, and Spain. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 43(8), 1503-1514.
Reynolds, P. (2001). Accounting for sexuality: the scope and limitations of census data on sexual identity and difference. Radical Statistics, 78, 63-76.
Riley, N. E. (1999). Challenging demography: Contributions from feminist theory. Sociological Forum, 14(3), 369-397.
Riley, N., y McCarthy, J. (2003). Demography in the age of the postmodern. Cambridge University Press.
Riley, N. E. (2019). Demography of Gender. En D. L. Poston (Ed.), Handbook of Population (pp. 107-142). Springer International Publishing.
Ruberg, B., y Ruelos, S. (2020). Data for queer lives: How LGBTQ gender and sexuality identities challenge norms of demographics. Big Data & Society, 7(1).
Sanderson, W. C., y Scherbov, S. (2007). A new perspective on population aging. Demographic Research, 16, 27-58.
Scherpe, J. (2011). Changing one’s legal gender in Europe. The “W” case in comparative perspective. Hong Kong Law Journal, 41, 109-123.
Scott, J. (2010). Quantitative methods and gender inequalities. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 13(3), 223-236.
Sell, R. L. (2017). Challenges and Solutions to Collecting Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Data. American Journal of Public Health, 107(8), 1212-1214.
Slade, T., Gross, D. P., Niwa, L., McKillop, A. B., y Guptill, C. (2021). Sex and gender demographic questions: improving methodological quality, inclusivity, and ethical administration. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 24(6), 727-738.
Stang, M. F. (2019). La diversidad sexual y de género en censos y encuestas de América Latina: entre la invisibilidad y la lógica heteronormativa. Notas de Población, 108, 221-243.
Statistics Canada (2022). Broad age groups and gender: Canada, provinces, and territories. Recuperado de: https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810003601.
Strmic-Pawl, H. V., Jackson, B. A., y Garner, S. (2018). Race counts: racial and ethnic data on the US Census and the implications for tracking inequality. Sociology of Race and Ethnicity, 4(1), 1-13.
Strong, J., Nandagiri, R., Randall, S., y Coast, E. (2023). Qualitative research in demography: marginal and marginalised. En P. Liamputtong (Ed.), How to Conduct Qualitative Research in Social Science (pp. 147-163). Edward Elgar Publishing.
Thorsteinsson, E. B., Bjarnason, T., Loi, N. M., y Arnarsson, A. M. (2022). Sexual orientation and migration intentions among rural, exurban and urban adolescents in Iceland. Culture, Health & Sexuality, 24(1), 31-47.
Torgrimson, B. N., y Minson, C. T. (2005). Sex and gender: what is the difference? Journal of applied physiology, 99(3), 785-787.
Truman, J., Morgan, R., Gilbert, T., y Vaghela, P. (2019). Measuring sexual orientation and gender identity in the National Crime Victimization Survey. Journal of Official Statistics, 35(4), 835-858.
Watkins, S. C. (1993). If all we knew about women were what we read in demography, what would we know? Demography, 30(4), 551-578.
Westbrook, L., y Saperstein, A. (2015). New Categories Are Not Enough: Rethinking the Measurement of Sex and Gender in Social Surveys. Gender & Society, 29(4), 534-560
Williams, J. R. (2010). Doing feminist‐demography. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 13(3), 197-210.
Wilson, T., Temple, J., Lyons, A., y Shalley, F. (2020). What is the size of Australia’s sexual minority population? BMC Research Notes, 13(535), 1-6.
Badgett, M. L., Baker, K. E., Conron, K. J., Gates, G. J., Gill, A., Greytak, E., y Herman, J. L. (2014). Best practices for asking questions to identify transgender and other gender minority respondents on population-based surveys (GenIUSS). The GenIUSS Group, UCLA Williams Institute.
Baumle, A. K., Compton, D. R., y Poston, D. L. Jr. (2009). Same-sex partners: The social demography of sexual orientation. State University of New York Press.
Baumle, A.K., y Dreon, B. (2019). The Demography of Sexuality. En D. L. Poston (Ed.), Handbook of Population (pp. 279-288). Springer.
Baumle, A. K. (2022). Demography of Transgender, Nonbinary and Gender Minority Populations. Springer International Publishing.
Baumle, A. K., y Nordmarken, S. (2022). Introduction to the Demography of Transgender, Nonbinary, and Gender Minority Populations. En A. Baumle (Ed.), Demography of Transgender, Nonbinary and Gender Minority Populations (pp. 1-12). Springer International Publishing.
Biggs, M. (2023). Gender Identity in the 2021 Census of England and Wales: How a Flawed Question Created Spurious Data. Sociology, 58(6), 1305-1323.
Boertien, D., y Vignoli, D. (2019). Legalizing same-sex marriage matters for the subjective well-being of individuals in same-sex unions. Demography, 56(6), 2109-2121.
Browne, K. (2008). Selling my queer soul or queerying quantitative research? Sociological Research Online, 13(1), 200-214.
Butler, J. (2007). El género en disputa: el feminismo y la subversión de la identidad. Paidós
Caldwell, J. C. (1996). Demography and social science. Population Studies, 50(3), 305-333.
Canales, A. I. (2021). Demografía de la desigualdad. Nueva sociedad, 293, 154-166.
Cochran, S. D., Björkenstam, C., y Mays, V. M. (2016). Sexual orientation and all-cause mortality among US adults aged 18 to 59 years, 2001-2011. American Journal of Public Health, 106(5), 918-920.
Compton, D. L. R., y Baumle, A. K. (2018). Demographics of gay and lesbian partnerships and families. En N. E. Riley y J. Brunson (Eds.), International Handbook on Gender and Demographic Processes (pp. 267-285). Springer.
Cortina, C. (2016). Demographics of same-sex couples in Spain. Revista Española de Investigaciones Sociológicas (REIS), 153, 3-22.
Davidian, A. (2011). Beyond the locker room: Changing narratives on early surgery for intersex children. Wisconsin Journal of Law, Gender, and Society, 26, 1-26.
Department of Health of Australia (2012). National LGBTI Ageing and Aged Care Strategy. Australian Government.
Durso, L. E., y Gates, G. J. (2013). Best practices: Collecting and analyzing data on sexual minorities. En A. Baumle (Eds.), International Handbook on the Demography of Sexuality (pp. 21-42). Springer Netherlands.
Escobedo Rivera, J. (2007). El dato en la investigación demográfica: una visión epistemológica. Papeles de Población, 13(54), 9-21.
European Commission (2023). Guidance note on the collection and use for data LGTBIQ equality. Publications Office of the European Union.
Fausto-Sterling, A. (2000). Sexing the body: Gender politics and the construction of sexuality. Basic Book.
Federici, N., Caselli, G., Egidi, V., y Fong, M. (1985). The Status of Women, Population and Development. IUSSP Newsletter, 23-24, 77-98.
Fernández-Carro, C., Grande-Martín, R., Miret, P., y Seiz, M. (2022). Generaciones y curso(s) de vida: una mirada longitudinal a los retos demográficos contemporáneos. RES. Revista Española de Sociología, 31(2), 1-10.
Fischer M., Kroh M., De Vries L., Kasprowski D., Kühne S., Richter D., y Zindel, Z. (2022). Sexual and Gender Minority (SGM) research meets household panel surveys: research potentials of the German socio-economic panel and its boost sample of sgm households. European Sociological Review, 38(2), 321-335.
Fuchs, S., y Ward, S. (1994). What is deconstruction, and where and when does it take place? Making facts in science, building cases in law. American Sociological Review, 59(4), 481-500.
Gates, G. J. (2011). How many people are lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender? Williams Institute, UCLA School of Law.
Gieseking, J. J. (2018). Size matters to lesbians, too: Queer feminist interventions into the scale of big data. The Professional Geographer, 70(1), 150-156.
Guyan, K. (2022). Constructing a queer population? Asking about sexual orientation in Scotland’s 2022 census. Journal of Gender Studies, 31(6), 782-792.
Hammarström, A., y Annandale, E. (2012). A conceptual muddle: an empirical analysis of the use of ‘sex’ and ‘gender’ in ‘gender-specific medicine journals. PLoS One, 7(4), e34193.
Henehan, D., Rothblum, E. D., Solomon, S. E., y Balsam, K. F. (2008). Social and demographic characteristics of gay, lesbian, and heterosexual adults with and without children. Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 3(2-3), 35-79.
Horton, H. D. (1999). Critical demography: The paradigm of the future? Sociological Forum, 14(3), 363-367.
Hubert, M., Bajos, N., y Sandfort, T. (Eds.) (1998). Sexual behaviour and HIV/AIDS in Europe: Comparisons of national surveys. Routledge.
Hughes, C., y Cohen, R. L. (Eds.) (2013). Feminism counts: quantitative methods and researching gender. Routledge.
Janssens, A. (2007). ‘Were women present at the demographic transition?’ A question revisited. The History of the Family, 12(1), 43-49.
Lagos, D., y Compton, D. L. (2021). Evaluating the use of a two-step gender identity measure in the 2018 General Social Survey. Demography, 58(2), 763-772.
Le Bras, H. (2000). L’invention des populations: biologie, idéologie et politique. Odile Jacob.
Lombardi, E., y Banik, S. (2016). The utility of the two-step gender measure within trans and cis populations. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 13(3), 288-296.
McDaniel, S. A. (1996). Toward a synthesis of feminist and demographic perspectives on fertility. The Sociological Quarterly, 37(1), 83-104.
Mackinnon, A. (1995). Were women present at the demographic transition? Questions from a feminist historian to historical demographers. Gender & History, 7(2), 222-240.
Mason, K. O. (1986). The Status of Women: Conceptual and Methodological Issues in Demographic Studies. Sociological Forum, 1(2), 284-300.
Meerwijk, E. L., y Sevelius, J. M. (2017). Transgender Population Size in the United States: A Meta-Regression of Population-Based Probability Samples. American Journal of Public Health, 107(2), 1-8.
Nicholson, L. J. (1999). Interpreting “Gender”. En The Play of Reason: From the Modern to the Postmodern (pp. 53-76). Cornell University Press.
Office for National Statistics (2023). Gender identity, England, and Wales: Census 2021. Recuperado de: https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/culturalidentity/genderidentit y/bulletins/genderidentityenglandandwales/census2021.
ONU (2023). Diccionario demográfico multilingüe. División de Población, ONU.
Ortega, A. A. C. (2023). Toward critical demography 2.0. Human Geography, 16(3), 343-354.
Patterson, G. (2019). Queering and transing quantitative research. En W. P. Banks, M. B. Cox y C. Dadas (Eds.), Re/orienting writing studies: Queer methods, queer projects (pp. 54-74). Utah State University Press.
Petit, V. (2013). Counting populations, understanding societies: Towards an interpretative demography (Vol. 1). Springer Science & Business Media.
Presser, H. B. (1997). Demography, feminism, and the science-policy nexus. Population and Development Review, 23(2), 295-331.
Randall, S., y Koppenhaver, T. (2004). Qualitative data in demography: The sound of silence and other problems. Demographic Research, 11, 57-94.
Reisner, S. L., Conron, K. J., Tardiff, L. A., Jarvi, S., Gordon, A. R., y Austin, S. B. (2014). Using a two-step method to measure transgender identity in Latin America/the Caribbean, Portugal, and Spain. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 43(8), 1503-1514.
Reynolds, P. (2001). Accounting for sexuality: the scope and limitations of census data on sexual identity and difference. Radical Statistics, 78, 63-76.
Riley, N. E. (1999). Challenging demography: Contributions from feminist theory. Sociological Forum, 14(3), 369-397.
Riley, N., y McCarthy, J. (2003). Demography in the age of the postmodern. Cambridge University Press.
Riley, N. E. (2019). Demography of Gender. En D. L. Poston (Ed.), Handbook of Population (pp. 107-142). Springer International Publishing.
Ruberg, B., y Ruelos, S. (2020). Data for queer lives: How LGBTQ gender and sexuality identities challenge norms of demographics. Big Data & Society, 7(1).
Sanderson, W. C., y Scherbov, S. (2007). A new perspective on population aging. Demographic Research, 16, 27-58.
Scherpe, J. (2011). Changing one’s legal gender in Europe. The “W” case in comparative perspective. Hong Kong Law Journal, 41, 109-123.
Scott, J. (2010). Quantitative methods and gender inequalities. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 13(3), 223-236.
Sell, R. L. (2017). Challenges and Solutions to Collecting Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Data. American Journal of Public Health, 107(8), 1212-1214.
Slade, T., Gross, D. P., Niwa, L., McKillop, A. B., y Guptill, C. (2021). Sex and gender demographic questions: improving methodological quality, inclusivity, and ethical administration. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 24(6), 727-738.
Stang, M. F. (2019). La diversidad sexual y de género en censos y encuestas de América Latina: entre la invisibilidad y la lógica heteronormativa. Notas de Población, 108, 221-243.
Statistics Canada (2022). Broad age groups and gender: Canada, provinces, and territories. Recuperado de: https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810003601.
Strmic-Pawl, H. V., Jackson, B. A., y Garner, S. (2018). Race counts: racial and ethnic data on the US Census and the implications for tracking inequality. Sociology of Race and Ethnicity, 4(1), 1-13.
Strong, J., Nandagiri, R., Randall, S., y Coast, E. (2023). Qualitative research in demography: marginal and marginalised. En P. Liamputtong (Ed.), How to Conduct Qualitative Research in Social Science (pp. 147-163). Edward Elgar Publishing.
Thorsteinsson, E. B., Bjarnason, T., Loi, N. M., y Arnarsson, A. M. (2022). Sexual orientation and migration intentions among rural, exurban and urban adolescents in Iceland. Culture, Health & Sexuality, 24(1), 31-47.
Torgrimson, B. N., y Minson, C. T. (2005). Sex and gender: what is the difference? Journal of applied physiology, 99(3), 785-787.
Truman, J., Morgan, R., Gilbert, T., y Vaghela, P. (2019). Measuring sexual orientation and gender identity in the National Crime Victimization Survey. Journal of Official Statistics, 35(4), 835-858.
Watkins, S. C. (1993). If all we knew about women were what we read in demography, what would we know? Demography, 30(4), 551-578.
Westbrook, L., y Saperstein, A. (2015). New Categories Are Not Enough: Rethinking the Measurement of Sex and Gender in Social Surveys. Gender & Society, 29(4), 534-560
Williams, J. R. (2010). Doing feminist‐demography. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 13(3), 197-210.
Wilson, T., Temple, J., Lyons, A., y Shalley, F. (2020). What is the size of Australia’s sexual minority population? BMC Research Notes, 13(535), 1-6.
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